LB 

)I3I 
?^8 


o 

CO 

o 
o 

o 
>- 


NTERESTS   IN   RELATION   TO 
INTELLIGENCE 


CHILDREK    I 
OF    >^OH<r^ 


BY 


Louise  E.   Poully  M.A, 


SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE  REQUiREA', 
FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILO^^' '  • 
IN'  THE   FACULTY   OF  PHILOSOP! 
COLUMBIA   UN1VER51T^ 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Page 

Introduction  and  Review  of  Previous  Researches 3 

Natnre  and  Scope  of  the  Problem 7 

Outlines  and  Methods  of  Investigation 9 

Stability  of  Children's  Expressions  of  their  Preferences 

for  Occupations  and  Recreations  and  of  their  School  Plans  19 

Correspondence  of  Aims  and  Ideals 23 

Measures  of  Intelligence 27 

The  Pintner  Non-Language  Scale  as  a  Test  of  Interest  in 

Mechanics 32 

Vocational  Interests  and  School  Plans  in  Relation  to  Intelli- 
gence Quotients 39 

Conclusions 52 

Bibliography 53 


478724 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This  research  was  made  possible  by  the  friendly  co-operation 
of  Miss  Loretta  M.  Eochester,  Mr.  Harold  Peyser  and  Mr. 
Benjamin  B.  Greenberg,  the  principals  of  the  schools  involved. 
I  wish  to  express  my  gratitude  to  them  for  their  interest  and 
assistance,  as  also  to  the  teachers;  to  Miss  Ellen  Mathews  and 
Miss  Isabel  Davenport  my  assistant  examiners,  and  to  Miss 
Thyra  Smith  and  Mr.  Victor  Moorrees  for  the  final  preparation 
for  publication. 

Above  all,  I  am  indebted  to  Miss  Elizabeth  E.  Farrell,  and  to 
Professors  R.  S.  Woodworth,  E.  L.  Thorndike,  and  W.  A.  McCall, 
for  help  in  outlining  the  problem  and  in  application  of  statistical 
methods. 


[Beprinted  from  Ungraded,  Vol.  VII,  Nos.  7,  8  and  9,  April,  May  and  June,  1922.] 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  RELATION  OF  THE  MENTAL  STATUS  OF  SCHOOL  CHIL- 
DREN TO  THEIR  MOTIVATION  AS  SHOWN  IN  THE  CHOICES  OF  SCHOOL 
PLANS  AND  OCCUPATIONAL  PREFERENCES. 

By  Louise  E.  Poull,  Ph.D. 

Introduction  and  Review  of  Previous  Researches 

The  study  of  interests  is  essential  to  the  study  of  human  na- 
ture. Interest  is  an  important  factor  in  every  analysis  of  mental 
functioning.  "  My  experience  is  what  I  agree  to  attend  to. 
Only  those  items  which  I  notice  shape  my  mind — ^without  elect- 
ive interest  experience  is  an  utter  chaos.  Interest  alone  gives 
accent  and  emphasis,  light  and  shade,  background  and  fore- 
ground— intelligible  perspective  in  a  word.  It  varies  in  every 
creature  but  without  it  the  consciousness  of  every  creature 
would  be  a  gray  chaotic  indiscriminateness  impossible  for  us  to 
conceive.  "(1)*  **  We  may  say  that  three  general  factors  of  ad- 
vantage determine  the  power  of  any  stimulus  to  attract  atten- 
tion. There  is  the  native  factor  consisting  of  change,  intensity, 
striking  quality  and  form ;  there  is  the  factor  of  habit,  dependent 
on  past  experience;  and  there  is  the  factor  of  present  interest 
and  desire.  "(2)  Thorndike  (3)  has  further  analysed  interest 
into  *^  instinctive  likes  "  and  **  readiness  "  for  neurone  condi- 
tion. Scientific  research  on  neurone  conduction  will  no  doubt 
lead  eventually  to  a  fuller  understanding  of  the  manner  in  which 
this  readiness  is  brought  about. 

Walseman(4)  describes  interest  as  the  subjective  condition  of 


Fignree  refer  to  numbers  in  the  bibliogn^phy. 


*  INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 

cognition.  Its  importance  both  as  a  source  of  energy  and  as  a 
means  of  conservation  of  energy  is  explained  by  him  in  analysing 
the  nature  of  interest.  It  consists  of  an  inner  need  to  pursue  its 
object,  combined  with  a  joyous  exaltation  and  a  feeling  of  buoy- 
ancy. It  contains  within  itself  a  constant  stimulus  to  further 
endeavor,  positive  direction  and  balanced  tension.  It  provides, 
without  expenditure  of  energy,  for  the  control  of  moods,  desires, 
and  passions. 

It  remains  for  the  laboratory  psychologist  to  put  this  im- 
portant element  of  mental  functioning  in  proper  form  for  scien- 
tific observation ;  to  get  a  cross  section,  so  to  speak,  for  anaylsis. 
Folsom(5)  expresses  the  inadequacy  of  treating  character  traits 
as  general  attributes  of  mind.  *'....  they  fail  to  discriminate 
different  situations,  and  they  assume  too  great  generality.  .  .  . 
Lack  of  concentration  may  be  simply  inability  to  concentrate  on 
\  certain  kinds  of  work."  The  study  of  interest,  then,  becomes, 
^  '  in  the  laboratory,  the  study  of  interests,  and  these  can  be  ob- 
served only  in  their  manifestations.  Laboratory  psychology  is 
concerned  with  the  age  at  which  they  appear,  their  permana- 
nence  or  transitoriness,  their  power  of  motivation,  their  rela- 
tion to  abilities  and  capacities. 

Folsom(5)  endeavored  to  find  the  relation  of  interest  to  other 
forms  of  motivation.    He  classified  the  motives  for  vocational 
choices  taken  from  the  questionnaire  responses  of  206  dis- 
tinguished men  from  *'  Who's  Who  "  and  those  of  155  upper 
'"  ■ "    classmen  of  a  small  college.    These  motives  were :  1.  Intrinsic  in- 
terest; 2.  Satisfactions  not  intrinsic:  Advantage,  Ambition,  and 
Desire  for  social  contacts ;  3.  Moral  motives :  Service  and  Duty ; 
4.  Fitness;  5.  Opportunity  in  the  field;  6.  Financial,  including 
necessity;   7.  Influence   or  tradition;   8.  Elimination.     **  That' 
nearly  half  of  the  motivation  for  vocational  choice  among  col- 
,,./       lege  men  is  sheer  liking  or  interest  for  the  work  seems  estab- 
i         lished.    It  is  evident  that  this  motive  plays  a  much  greater  part 
in  technical  and  scientific  occupations." 

The  influence  of  the  father's  occupation  on  the  vocational 
interest  of  the  child  was  studied  by  Elizabeth  T.  Sullivan (6)  in 
the  San  Jose  High  School  in  1918.  The  Barr  Eating  Scale  for 
Vocations  was  used  in  making  the  comparison.  **  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  students  choosing  a  Class  2  vocation  have  a  tendency  to 
choose  the  same  in  from  one  to  four  points  below  the  father. 
Students  choosing  a  Class  3  vocation  make  a  choice  ranging  from 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE  D 

one  point  below  that  of  the  father  to  three  points  above,  while 
those  choosing  a  Class  4  vocation  range  in  choice  from  two  points 
below  to  two  points  above  that  of  the  father.  Fifty  per  cent,  of 
the  students  choosing  a  Class  3  vocation  make  the  same  choice 
as  the  father.  For  the  remaining  per  centages  there  is  a  de- 
cided tendency  for  students  to  make  a  choice  above  that  of  the 
father.  When  the  student's  choice  of  vocation  is  below  that  of 
the  father,  the  choice  is  always  of  the  lower  class  vocations. 
....  We  may  conclude  that  the  father's  vocation  does  not 
inspire  the  student  in  the  choice  of  his  vocation.  On  the  con-* 
trary,  it  is  possible  to  conclude  that  the  intimate  knowledge  he 
has  of  the  limitations  of  his  father 's  vocation  make  clear  to  him 
one  vocation  to  be  avoided. ' '  Group  1  in  thi  s  scale  is  the  lowest 
and  group  7  the  highest. 

Barr(ll)  reports  the  correlation  of  the  intelligence  of  the  child 
according  to  the  Stanford-Binet  Scale  with  the  occupational 
rating  of  the  father  worked  out  on  104  cases.  The  correlation 
was  .69  with  P.  E.  .035. 

A  study  of  group  differences  between  public  school  children 
for  various  appeals  to  age  and  sex  is  reported  by  Gertrude  Mary 
Kuper.(12)  Nine  pictures  of  uniform  size  and  finish  were 
chosen  to  represent  nine  appeals.  She  found  a  sex  difference  in 
the  order  of  preference.  *'  The  girls'  order  was:  1,  religion;  2, 
patriotism;  3,  children;  4,  pathos;  5,  animals;  6,  sentiment;  7, 
landscape ;  8,  the  heroic ;  9,  action.  The  last  two  were  decidedly 
lowest  in  the  scale  and  the  first  three  were  quite  clearly  highest 
for  all  ages ;  but  the  picture  representing  these  nine  curves  was 
one  of  bewildering  intersections  as  the  values  changed  from  year 
to  year.  The  boys'  order  was:  1,  religion;  2,  patriotism;  3, 
action ;  4,  the  heroic ;  5,  pathos ;  6,  animals ;  7,  sentiment ;  8,  land- 
scape ;  9,  children.  The  boys '  chart  representing  the  curves  for 
these  appeals  showed  greater  agreement  from  year  to  year." 

The  change  of  attitude  from  childhood  to  adolescence  is  clearly 
outlined  in  the  children's  expressions  from  year  to  year.  **At 
the  ages  between  11  and  13  the  critical  spirit  made  its  first  ap- 
pearance among  the  girls.    Only  at  fourteen  did  it  occur  in  the 

boys'  comments At  15,  the  remarks  become  more 

laconic    ....     this    age    is    marked    by    the    first    signs 
of  hesitation  in  speaking  of  pictures  of  sentiment." 

The  indication  is  that  interests  are  well  defined  at  an  early 
age  and  that  it  is  possible  to  obtain  objective  measures  of  them. 


b  INTERESTS   IN    RELATION   TO   INTELLIGENCE 

May (13)  emphasizes  the  need  for  taking  into  consideration  the 
**  vocational  ideals  "  of  children.  He  defines  these  ideals  as  de- 
sires which  may  become  separated  from  reality  on  account  of  the 
apparent  hopelessness  of  their  materializing.  Expressions  of 
these  ideals  would,  according  to  Dr.  May,  help  us  to  understand 
the  inner  drives  of  the  child,  his  longings  to  work  out  capacities 
he  feels  but  does  not  understand,  and  in  working  out  which  he 
would  be  rounding  out  his  personality.  He  believes  it  possible, 
beginning  with  the  third  year  of  school,  to  use  a  definite  method, 
and  his  experiment  will,  no  doubt,  throw  light  on  the  many  dif- 
ficulties of  using  this  method  in  the  future  curriculum. 

Kent  (14)  inquired  into  the  early  constructive  interests  of  72 
talented  engineers.  "  With  regard  to  interest  taken  in  actual 
performance  of  work  during  boyhood,  the  answers  affirming  such 
interest  generally  do  so  with  a  positiveness  and  detail  which 
marks  it  as  the  dominant  one  of  the  period. 

At  least  79  per  cent,  did  more  or  less  constructive  work  before 
reaching  the  age  of  17.  Fifty-four  per  cent,  did  such  work  as 
proves  the  possession  during  boyhood  of  decidedly  exceptional 
constructive  ability. ' ' 

Forty-four  per  cent,  of  the  whole  or  four-fifths  of  this  talented 
section  did  work  which  indicates  that  this  talent  and  their  tastes 
already  possessed  a  decided  bent  towards  machine  construction. 

Thirty  per  cent,  of  all  built  steam  engines,  thus  proving  and 
defining  in  a  peculiarly  distinct  and  conclusive  way  both  an  al- 
ready developed  taste  for  mechanical  engineering  as  such  and 
their  possession  during  boyhood  of  very  exceptional  talent  for  it. 
,  In  this  field,  at  least,  we  have  evidence  that  early  interest  fore- 
shadows future  ability." 

In  1912  Thorndike  made  a  study  of  the  **  Permanence  of  In- 
terests and  their  Relation  to  Abilities. (6)  He  summarizes  his 
results  as  follows;  *'  I  have  computed  the  resemblance  between 
interest  in  the  last  three  years  of  the  elementary  school  and  ca- 
pacity in  the  college  period  as  a  partial  measure  of  the  extent  to 
which  early  interest  could  be  used  as  a  symptom  of  adult  capac- 
ity. The  average  for  the  hundred  individuals  is  a  co-efficient  of 
correlation  or  resemblance  of  .60.*'  He  found  the  co-efficient  of 
correlation  between  the  order  of  ability  in  the  elementary  school 
in  seven  subjects  and  their  order  in  the  college  period  to  be  .65. 
Combined  elementary  and  High  School  ability,  correlated  with 
college  ability  by  the  rank  method,  gave  a  co-efficient  of  .91.    In 


INTERESTS   IN    RELATION    TO   INTELLIGENCE  7 

1917(7)  he  reports  a  similar  study  resulting  in  the  following 
correlations : 

Elementary  school  interests  with  high  school  interests r  =  85 

Elementary  school  interests  with  college  interests r  =  66 

High  school  interests  with  college  interests r  =  79 

Elementary  school  interests  with  college  ability r  =  66 

Order  of  interest  with  order  of  ability  in  elementary  school,  high  school 

and  college r  =  89 

He  adds  the  following  comment:  "  Even  if  the  true  resemb- 
lances are  ten  per  cent,  below,  these  facts  witness  to  the  im- 
portance of  early  interest.  They  are  rather  stable  features  of  an 
individual's  constitution  and  are  symptomatic,  either  as  cause 
or  effect,  or  both,  of  abilities. ' ' 

Nature  and  Scope  of  the  Problem 
If  the  interests  of  children  in  elementary  school  subjects  are 
sjinptomatic  of  college  ability  what  of  the  interests  in  occupa- 
tions and  in  recreational  activities?  When  children  are  leaving 
the  elementary  school  the  practical  aspect  of  interests  in  occu- 
pation is  taken  into  consideration.  Secondary  education  has 
then  been  advised  for  aU  who  are  able  to  put  off  earning  a  living, 
and  part  time  education  for  those  who  are  ambitious  enough  to 
exchange  play-time  for  education.  If  interests  are  potent  in 
directing  the  vital  forces  can  we  afford  to  ignore  them  during 
the  growing  years?  For  many  years  the  subject  of  elimination 
from  high  school  has  been  under  discussion.  Van  Denberg(8,  p. 
158)  informs  us  that  but  one  of  eight  high  school  entrants  suc- 
ceeds in  graduating ;  that  from  five-sixths  to  seven-eighths  have 
no  "  tangible  resultant  benefits;'*  that  the  high  schools  are  being 
crowded  with  thousands  eager  for  some  taste  of  secondary  edu- 
cation among  whom  are  a  few  who  can  and  will  w^ork  forward  to 
successful  graduation  under  the  present  sifting  process.  Yet, 
with  these,  who  can  and  will,  are  more,  who  can  but  will  not  be- 
cause our  process  of  selection  or  sifting  is  crude  and  defective ; 
and  so  we  lose  this  latter,  equally  good,  material  through  the 
inefficiency  of  our  present  methods  of  selection." 

Book (9)  draws  the  following  conclusions  from  his  survey  of 
the  high  schools  of  Indiana : 

**  1.  That  the  high  schools  of  the  State  are  not  adapting  them- 
selves to  the  inequalities  in  mental  strength  shown  by  their 
pupils  as  well  as  they  might. 


8  INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 

"  2.  That  high  schools  as  at  present  organized  and  conducted 
seem  to  be  better  adapted  to  the  interests  and  needs  of  the  girls 
than  the  boys.  The  girls  are  more  rapidly  and  consistently  ad- 
vanced by  the  schools,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  boys 
make  better  records  on  our  mental  tests.  This  suggests  that  the 
high  school  is  either  better  adapted  to  the  interests  and  needs  of 
the  girls,  or  that  the  girls  possess  characteristics  other  than  gen- 
eral intelligence  important  for  school  success  not  possessed  by 
the  boys " 

These  considerations  seem  to  point  to  the  probability  that  the 
causes  of  elimination  should  be  sought  farther  back  in  school  life. 
Though  the  study  of  elimination  from  the  grades  may  be  basal 
to  any  high  school  inquiry  the  problem  is  actually  a  larger  one, 
namely,  the  motivation  of  school  children.  The  question  is  not 
only  why  high  schools  lose  so  many  students  by  the  way  but  also, 
who  of  the  elementary  school  population  goes  to  high  school! 
Who  goes  to  work  without  further  school  plans  and  who  is  plan- 
ning for  part  time  secondary  education!  What  are  their  special 
interests  and  in  what  degree  are  these  interests  related  to  intelli-^ 
gence?  What  is  the  relation  not  only  between  intelligence  and 
school  plans,  but  also  between  interest  and  failure  to  fit  into  the 
existing  school  organization. 

The  causes  of  truancy  are  vitally  related  to  the  interests  and 
intelligence  of  school  children.  Before  we  had  compulsory  school 
laws,  natural  selection  was  allowed  to  operate.  Children  who 
could  not  comply  with  the  minimum  standards  could  leave  school 
and  go  to  work.  But  under  the  compulsory  school  law  the  child 
who  can  qualify  for  seventh  grade  is  allowed  to  go  to  work ;  the 
one  who  has  not  the  capacity  for  work  in  the  sixth  grade  is 
obliged  to  attend  school  until  he  is  sixteen  years  old.  These 
children  are  not  necessarily  mental  defectives.  But  they  are 
caught  as  in  a  vise  between  an  inflexible  law,  an  inflexible  curri- 
culum and  their  own  mental  limitations.  They  are  denied  the 
only  development  that  is  possible  for  them,  namely,  vocational  * 
training  in  accordance  mth  their  mental  capacities  and  interests. 

There  are  children  who  submit  to  these  repressions.  Others 
express  their  protest  in  defiant  behavior  and  truancy.  Truants 
are  considered  by  society  as  juvenile  delinquents,  parents  of 
truants  are  fined,  and  anti-social  life  attitudes  take  root.  A 
group  of  608  unselected  truants  taken  from  the  Bureau  of  At- 
tendance of  New  York  City (15)  were  ranged  according  to  their 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE  9 

intelligence  quotients  and  were  fonnd  to  have  a  median  I.  Q.  of 
84.6.  Only  15  per  cent,  of  this  group  were  above  the  normal 
median.  A  similar  study  of  30  truants  who  are  also  delinquents 
on  other  counts  was  made  in  1918  by  the  Department  of  Research 
of  Whittier  State  School,  California.  The  findings  showed  the 
same  median  I.  Q.  and  distribution  as  the  New  York  City  study. 
When  allowance  is  made  for  other  factors  of  truancy  the  fact 
remains  that  the  large  majority  of  truants  are  children  whose 
natural  capacities  and  interests  are  ignored  by  the  present  school 
organization. 

The  problem  is  too  comprehensive  to  be  solved  by  intelligence 
tests  alone.  An  I.  Q.  is  an  average  and  has  all  the  limitations  of 
averages.  Two  persons  with  identical  I.  Q.*s  may  react  in  op- 
posite ways  to  the  same  stimulus.  The  general  intelligence  fur- 
nishes the  minimum  requirement  for  these  reactions  but  the  type 
of  reaction  is  conditioned  by  temperament,  by  individual  (16) 
likes  and  dislikes.  Quoting  James  once  more : '  *  We  never  make 
an  effort  to  attend  to  an  object  except  for  the  sake  of  some  re- 
mote interest  which  the  effort  will  serve.'*  No  one  feels  more 
keenly  than  the  examiner  who  makes  mental  tests  how  sterile  is 
this  field  unless  the  special  capacities,  the  drives  of  the  indi- 
vidual are  taken  into  account.  In  individual  testing,  the  labora- 
tory psychologist  gives  the  subject  every  opportunity  to  show 
what  is  the  dominating  influence  in  his  life.  Without  interfer- 
ing in  any  way  with  standardized  measures  or  standardized 
methods  of  procedure  it  is  possible  to  bring  out  instinctive  likes 
and  dislikes;  the  types  of  tests  in  which  a  certain  zest  is  dis- 
played, the  obvious  effort  in  others;  success  without  apparent 
effort  in  some,  failure  in  spite  of  effort  in  others;  spontaneous 
expressions,  and  supplementary  interviews  concerning  occupa- 
tions and  recreations,  difficulties  in  adjustment  to  environment, 
all  serve  to  bring  into  relief  the  distinguishing  characterists  of 
^a  personality. 

In  planning  the  present  investigation,  effort  was  made  to 
adapt  the  method  of  the  individual  examination  as  far  as  pos- 
sible to  the  group  examination. 

Outlines  and  Methods  of  Investigation 
The  purpose  of  this  investigation  was  to  find  the  relation  be- 
tween general  intelligence  and  children's  expressions  of  their 
interests  in  occupations  and  of  their  plans  for  secondary  educa- 


10  INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 

tion.  The  main  requirements  were:  valid  intelligence  tests, 
spontaneous  expressions  of  preferences,  and  an  unselected 
group  of  children  of  sufficient  number  to  secure  statistical  re- 
liability. 

The  three  public  schools  whose  populations  were  the  subjects 
of  this  study,  are  located  in  the  same  school  district  of  Manhat- 
tan. This  district  is  a  working  man's  neighborhood,  as  is  proved 
by  the  records  of  the  occupations  of  the  parents.  There  are  only 
a  few  cases  of  professional  workers  or  owners  of  small  shops. 
We  may  then  assume  an  equal  social  status  for  the  group.  Pub- 
lic School  No.  3,  the  school  for  girls,  has  a  larger  population 
than  No.  11,  the  school  for  boys.  To  avoid  a  marked  inequality 
between  the  number  of  boys  and  girls,  the  6a  class  of  Public 
School  No.  95,  a  school  for  boys,  was  included.  This  equalized 
the  numbers  and  as  a  6a  class  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  rep- 
resentative cross  section  of  a  school  population,  the  selection 
brings  in  no  debatable  factor.  It  is  owing  to  the  differences  in 
actual  attendance  from  day  to  day  that  the  totals  of  responses 
to  the  different  tests  vary.  No  effort  was  made  to  fill  in  the  gaps 
caused  by  absence.  The  total  number  of  subjects  is  approxi- 
mately 1,206;  658  girls  and  548  boys. 

The  investigation  was  limited  to  classes  5b  to  8b  inclusive. 
The  limitations  at  the  lower  end  is  somewhat  arbitrary,  but  we 
may  say,  in  a  general  way  that  in  grades  below  the  fifth,  the 
child's  mind  is  so  busy  adjusting  itself  to  the  growing  situations 
of  the  elementary  school  that  it  cannot  plan  beyond.  However, 
an  extension  of  the  study  of  interests  in  the  lower  grades  would 
be  desirable. 

To  obtain  valid  intelligence  ratings  for  so  large  a  group,  care- 
ful planning  was  necessary.  It  is  not  assumed  that  any  group 
method  can  replace  individual  examinations  in  the  study  of  per- 
sonalities. The  plan  was  rather  to  see  whether,  by  means  of  the 
group  method,  an  approach  could  be  made  to  an  adequate  study  < 
of  a  school  population.  National  Intelligence  Test  A  and  B, 
Form  1,  were  chosen  as  a  basis  but  it  was  decided  to  supplement 
these  by  a  non-language  scale  in  order  to  compensate  for  the  low 
ratings  which  might  result  from  language  difficulties.  As  year 
norms  were  available,  the  Pintner  Non-Iianguage  Scale  was 
chosen,  the  Kelly-Trabue  Completion  Alpha  was  added  to  give 
additional  scope  for  expression  and  the  Pintner  Educational 
Scale  to  give  an  objective  measure  of  school  attainment  to  be 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 


11 


used  especially  in  problem  cases.  Obviously,  the  comi)osite 
rating  obtained  from  the  results  of  four  tests,  necessitating 
several  visits  to  each  class,  is  a  more  reliable  indication  of  in- 
telligence than  is  the  rating  of  a  single  test.  A  detailed  account 
of  the  testing  and  of  the  weights  used  in  the  composite  is  given 
in  a  later  chapter. 

To  obviate  the  difficulties  arising  from  a  limited  time  for  re- 
sponse, spelling  difficulties  of  backward  children,  and  also  to 
equalize  somewhat  the  differences  in  life  experience,  lists  of  oc- 
cupations and  of  recreations  were  presented  from  which  they 
were  asked  to  make  three  choices.  Samples  of  the  question- 
naires are  given  below.  The  children  were  instructed  to  read 
them  carefully  before  selecting,  and  to  add  any  occupation  or 
recreation  which  they  preferred  if  that  occupation  or  recreation 
were  not  included  in  the  list.  A  third  questionnaire,  also  shown 
below,  concerns  the  family  and  plans  for  secondary  education. 

Write  your  name  here 

Write  your  address  here.    No Street. 

Which  of  these  would  you  like  best  to  do  1   Mark  it  1. 
Which  of  these  would  you  like  next  best  to  do?    Mark  it  2. 
Which  of  these  would  vou  like  next  best  to  do  !    Mark  it  3. 


Actor 

Electrician 

Nurse 

Architect 

Engineer 

Office  work 

Artist 

Engraver 

Office  helper 

Author 

Errand-boy 

Painter 

Automobile  mechanic 

Factory  worker 

Photographer 

Banker 

Farmer 

Plumber's  helper 

Barber 

Fireman 

Policeman 

Bell-boy 

Forester 

Printer 

Blacksmith 

Gardener 

Printer's  helper 

Bookkeeper 

Housekeeper 

Priest 

Bricklayer 

Insurance 

Professor 

Business 

Janitor 

Salesman 

Butcher 

Judge 

Secretary 

Car-conductor 

Laborer 

Shipbuilder 

Carpenter 

Librarian 

Stenographer 

Chauffeur 

Lawyer 

Taking  care  of  <a  home 

Clerk 

Mechanic 

Teacher 

Cook 

Mechanic's  helper 

Teamster 

Dentist 

Milliner 

Telegrapher 

Doctor 

Miner 

Telephone  operator 

Draftsman 

Minister 

Typist 

Dressmaker 

Motor-man 

Waiter 

Elevatorman 

Musician 

V/orker  in  laundry 

12  INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 

Write  your  name  here 


Write  your  address  here.    No Street . 


Which  of  these  do  you  like  best  for  a  good  time?    Mark  it  1. 
Which  of  these  do  you  like  next  best  for  a  good  time?    Mark  it  2. 
Which  of  these  do  you  like  next  best  for  a  good  time  ?    Mark  it  3. 


Acting 

Airplanes 

A'nimal  stories 

Automobile  driving 

Bicycle  riding 

Bird  stories 

Boat  riding 

Bowling 

Boxing 

Candymaking 

Card  g^ames 

Carving 

Climbing  trees 

Collecting  bird's  eggs 

Collecting  bugs 

Collecting  coins 

Collecting  marbles 

Collecting  shells 

Collecting  stamps 

Concerts 

Dancing 

Debates 

Detective  stories 

D^ce 

Dolls 

Dominoes 

Drama 

Dravnng 

Eftting  candy 

Embroidery 

Fancy  dancing 

Fishing 

Glardening 

Games  of  chance 

Going  to  circus 


Gymnasium 

Handball 

Holding  meetings 

Horse  back  riding 

Horse  races 

Hunting 

Ice  cream  parlor 

Jackstones 

Jewelry 

Kites 

Kodak 

Listening  to  music 

Machinery 

Masquerades 

Mechanical  toys 

Modeling 

Visiting 

Mountain  climbing 

Movies 

Museums 

Novels 

Opera 

Ouija 

Painting 

Picture  galariee 

Picnics 

Playing  baseball 

Playing  basketball 

Playing  house 

Playing  Indian 

Playing  chess 

Playing  checkers 

Playing  doctor 

Playing  robber 

Playing  school 


Playing  with  babies 

Playing  post  office 

Playing  volley  ball 

Reading  stories 

Beading  poetry 

Ring  games 

Rope  jumping 

Bowing 

Shopping 

Singing  games 

Sculpture 

Spinning  tops 

Sewing 

Skating 

Singing 

Sliding 

Sledding 

Sleighing 

Swimming 

Swinging 

Tableaus 

Target  shooting 

Tea  parties 

Tennis 

Train  rides 

Walking 

Watching  ball  games 

Wild  flowers 

Wrestling 

Writing  storiea 

Writing  letters 

Writing  poetry 

Vaudeville 

Victrola 


Write  your  name  here 

Write  the  number  of  your  school  here 

Where  do  you  live?    No Street 

How  old  are  you?    When  was  your  last  birthday?. 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE  13 

In  what  country  were  you  borni     

In  what  country  was  your  father  born!     

In  what  country  was  your  mother  born?     

What  is  your  father's  trade  or  business?     

What  is  your  mother's  trade  or  business?     

Write  here  the  names  of  your  brothers  and  sisters.  Write  ages 

here. 


Do  you  expect  to  go  to  High  School? ' 

If  you  do  go  to  High  School,  do  you  expect  to  go  to  a  Commercial 

High  School?     

If  you  do  go  to  High  School,  do  you  expect  to  go  to  a  Manual 

Training  High  School?      

If  you  do  go  to  High  School,  do  you  expect  to  go  to  an  Academic 

High  School?         

Do  you  expect  to  go  to  Night  School?    

Write  its  address  her.       No Street 

Do  you  expect  to  be  in  school  next  year  ?     

Do  you  expect  to  go  to  work?     

Do  you  expect  to  go  to  Vocational  School?     

Write  its  address  here.    No Street 

Do  you  expect  to  go  to  Continuation  School?    

What  do  you  expect  to  do  for  a  living  at  first? 

What  do  you  expect  to  do  for  a  living  later?    


14  INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 

The  data,  then,  comprise  the  mental  age  and  intelligence 
quotient  according  to  the  four  scales,  a  complete  rating  derived 
from  the  combined  results  of  these  scales,  the  educational  rating, 
the  first,  second  and  third  choices  of  occupations  and  of  recrea- 
tions, the  plan  for  secondary  education  and  for  life  occupation, 
the  occupation  of  the  father  and  mother,  the  order  of  birth,  the 
number  of  siblings,  the  place  of  birth  of  the  child  and  of  the 
father  and  mother. 

To  discover  whether  there  is  any  stability  in  children's  ex- 
pressions of  their  preferences,  individuals  of  small  groups 
were  interviewed,  using  the  subject-matter  of  the  questionnaire. 
In  another  group  the  questionnaire  was  presented  a  second  time 
after  an  interval  of  six  months.  The  results  of  these  checks  de- 
termined the  foundation  upon  which  the  conclusions  are  based. 
Questions  such  as,  *' Which  of  the  three  choices  is  most  stable! *' 
**  What  percentage  of  secondary  school  plans  persist  after  six 
months?  "  **Are  choices  of  recreations  and  choices  of  occupa- 
tions equally  stable?"  were  answered. 

The  results  of  the  intelligence  tests  have  been  worked  out  and 
shown  in  curves  of  distribution  for  each  of  the  scales  in  order 
to  compare  language  with  non-language  scales ;  the  correlations 
between  these  scales  have  been  found.  The  influence  of  foreign 
birth  and  parentage  on  the  results  of  the  Language  Comple- 
tion Scale  is  shown  by  plotting  curves  of  distribution  for  a 
group  of  American  born  children  of  American  born  parents  ac- 
cording to  the  Kelley-Trabue  Language  Completion  Alpha,  and 
the  National  Intelligence  Tests. 

The  groups  planning  for  High  School,  for  part  time  second- 
ary education,  and  for  work  only,  were  distributed  according  to 
their  intelligence  quotients.  The  curves  of  these  show  to  what 
extent  a  child's  plans  for  High  School  are  conditioned  by  his 
degree  of  intelligence. 

«.  Children's  expressions  of  interest  as  taken  from  question- 
naire data  were  compared  with  their  composite  intelligence  rat- 
ings. The  occupations  were  divided  into  the  following  general 
groups :  skilled  trades,  mechanics,  clerical  workers,  and  profes- 
sions. This  grouping  was  made  necessary  by  the  small  numbers 
in  the  single  occupation.  The  four  groups  were  then  distributed 
according  to  intelligence  quotients  and  compared  with  similar 
groups  taken  from  the  army  ratings.    This  comparison  gives 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE  15 

roughly  the  relation  of  children's  aspirations  to  life  opportuni- 
ties. 

Occupational  preferences  were  also  tabulated  against  life 
prospects,  of  which  the  evidence  was  the  answers  to  the  ques- 
tions concerning  the  occupation  by  which  the  child  expects  to 
make  a  living.  This  comparison  is  discussed  under  the  caption 
**  Correspondence  of  Aims  and  Ideals,"  and  yields  an  interest- 
ing result. 

The  records  of  a  group  of  children  who  expressed  *  *  mechani- 
cal "  interests  were  used  to  study  the  significance  of  success  in 
the  Pintner  Non-Language  Scale. 

The  results  of  the  entire  investigation  yield  these  findings : 

The  large  range  of  intelligence  in  any  occupation  or  group  of 
similar  occupations  proves  that  interests  are  more  potent  than 
general  intelligence  in  determining  the  direction  of  efforts 
towards  particular  fields  of  work.  It  indicates  the  need  for 
studying  the  special  drives  and  capacities  during  the  growing 
years.  Incidental  to  this  is  the  finding  that  children's  choices 
during  these  years  are  sufficiently  stable  to  be  used  as  guides  in 
directing  developmental  activities. 

The  large  percentage  of  children  who  plan  to  go  to  high  school 
lacking  sufficient  mentality  for  the  required  academic  work,  and 
also  the  significant  percentage  of  high  grade  children  who  plan 
for  part  time  secondary  education  or  for  work  only,  indicates 
the  need  for  scholarships  and  for  more  comprehensive  voca- 
tional training  to  provide  for  all  degrees  of  intelligence.  The 
low  degree  of  correspondence  between  aims  and  ideals  empha- 
sizes this  point. 

Comparison  of  the  different  types  of  scales  indicates  that  the 
non-language  scale  selects  children  who  have  a  special  interest 
in  mechanics.  The  ratings  according  to  the  Kelly-Trabue  Lan- 
guage Completion  Scale  as  compared  with  the  ratings  of  other 
scales  indicate  that  it  is  necessary  to  discount  the  results  of  a 
scale  which  is  highly  conditioned  by  the  use  of  language  when 
given  to  children  of  foreign  birth  or  parentage. 

A  feasible  system  is  given  by  which  any  school  can  keep  a 
record  of  the  child's  ambitions  and  dispositions  together  with  a 
record  of  the  home  background. 

Suggestions  for  further  researches  are  as  follows : 

1.  An  investigation  of  the  stability  of  children's  interests  in 
grades  below  5b. 


16  INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 

2.  A  study  of  individual  tests  composing  the  non-language 
scale,  to  discover  which  team  of  tests  furnishes  the  most  reliable 
indication  of  mechanical  interests. 

3.  A  correlation  of  success  in  different  scales  with  actual 
ability  in  industrial  work. 

4.  An  intensive  study  of  a  small  group,  covering  a  number  of 
years,  to  determine  the  relation  of  interest  to  actual  ability. 

Table  showing  responses  to  the  questionnaire  on  occupa- 
tions :* 

Choices  for  boys  Choices  for  girls 

1st  2nd  3rd                Ist        2nd        3rd 

Actor 35  27  16                 89          26          36 

Architect 3  6  9                   4          10            4 

Artist 18  19  7                 45          28          29 

Author 5  1  3                   7            5            8 

Automobile  mechanic 105  49  29  113 

Banker 8  15  16                   1            2            3 

Barber 1 

Bell  boy 2  2  3 

Blacksmith 4  2  1 

Book-keeper 5  12  4                 38          18          26 

Bricklayer 1  0  1 

Business 19  18  9                   0            4            7 

Butcher 5  2  1                                              2 

Car-conductor 1  5  3                   1            1 

Carpenter 18  25  26 

Chauffeur 25  46  36                   4            3            5 

Clerk 1  3  6                   2            8            4 

Cook 1  6  6          13 

Dentist 1  3 

Doctor 38  12  15                    3            6            3 

Draftsman 5  6  4                                              1 

Dressmaker 1  1  200          63          49 

Elevator-man 1  3 

Electrician 40  36  28                                              1 

Engineer 70  40  36 

Engraver 1  2 

Errand-boy 17  6  17 

Factory-worker 2  1  3                   8          23          13 

Farmer 3  9  17                                 8 

Fireman 13  11  10 

Forester 6  6  8 

Gardener 1  1  2            2            5 

Hoiisekeeper 3  8  11 

Insurance 2  4  * 

•  The  total  of  these  tables  vary  since  some  of  the  children  omitted  to  mark  first, 
second  or  third  choices.  Occupations  following  "worker  in  laundry"  were  in- 
serted by  the  children  after  they  had  read  the  lists. 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE  17 

Choices  for  boys  Choices  for  girls 

Ist        2nd        3rd  lat        2nd        3rd 

Janitor. 2 

Judge 2            6            5 

Laborer 1            1 

Librarian 1             2 

Lawyer 17          28          13 

Mechanic 24          62          45 

Mechanic's  helper 3            6            4 

Milliner 1 

Miner 2            4 

Minister. 

Musician 14          11          17 

Motor-man 5          10 

Nurse 

Office-work 14          11            9 

Office-helper 3            1 

Painter 1            2            5 

Photographer 1             1            1 

Plumber 's  helper 1            4            3 

Policeman 6            7          10 

Printer 5            5            9 

Printer's  helper 1            3            1 

Priest 6            3            2 

Professor 2            3            2 

Salesman 3            4          15 

Secretary 2            1            9 

Shipbuilder 1            8          10 

Stenographer 2            3            8 

Care  of  home 2 

Teacher 1             1            4 

Teamster 6            4            9 

Telegrapher 7            1            7 

Telephone   operator 2            2            4 

Typist 1            5          10 

Waiter 1 

Worker  in  laundry 

Sister 

Embroidery 

Tailor 1                         2 

Poet. 

Florist 

Designer. 2 

Singer 

Draper 

Wrestler 1 

Missionary 

Candy-maker 

Beader 

Truck  driver 1 

Ball  player 1                         2 

Detective 2            1            3 

Beal  estate 1 


3 

21 

15 

5 

7 

11 
2 

13 

39 

1 

28 

- 

1 

12 

20 

12 

19 

51 

43 

6 

14 

17 

1 

4 

3 

0 

3 

1 

9 

5 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

0 

1 

1 

1 

3 

1 

20 

28 

28 

65 

77 

81 

16 

18 

22 

51 

57 

70 

1 

17 

23 

33 

22 

32 

39 

3 

2 
8 

3 

1 

4 

3 
1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

18 


INTERESTS   IN   RELATION  TO   INTELLIGENCE 


Table  showing  responses  to  the  questionnaire  on  occupa- 
tions (cont.) : 


Choices  for  boys 
Ist        2nd        3rd 


Choices  for  girls 
l9t        2nd        3rd 


Foreman 2 

Watchmaker 1 

Druggist 1 

Reporter 2 

Jockey 

Accountant 

Delegate 

Longshoreman 

Furrier 

Oowpuncher 

Adventurer 

Sailor 

Scientist 

Vice  Pres.  of  U.  S 

Jeweller 1 

Aviator 

Pres.  of  Co 

Camper 

Soldier 1 

Chemist 2 

Beef  handler 

Steam  fitter 

Cashier 

Grocery  boy 1 

Broker 2 

Secret   service   police 

Poultry  raising 1 

Pres.   of   U.   S 

Explorer 

Wireless  operator 2 

Knitter 1 

Office  boy 

Hunter 

Prize  fighter 

Radio  operator 1 

Athlete 

Auctioneer 

Plumber 

Welder 1 

Texas  ranger 

Letter  carrier 1 

Bank  messenger 

Help  mother 1 

Scientific  explorer 1 


Totala 614 


579 


580 


677        665 


661 


interests  in  relation  to  intelligence  19 

Stability  of  Children's  Expressions  of  Their  Preferences  for 
Occupations  and  Recreations  and  of  Their  School  Plans 

Do  the  child's  expressions  of  his  preferences  and  plans  indi- 
cate an  interest  of  sufficient  persistence  to  warrant  the  assump- 
tion that  we  have  in  them  clues  to  the  sources  of  his  spontane- 
ous energy  and  power?  May  we  count  on  them  as  constant 
forces  ? 

Two  methods  were  adopted  to  determine  the  value  of  the 
questionnaire  as  it  was  used  in  this  investigation. 

The  first  was  tried  out  a  month  after  the  questionnaire  had 
been  submitted  to  the  girls  of  Public  School  No.  3.  This  was 
also  shortly  before  the  mid-year  graduation.  Forty  girls,  com 
prising  the  graduating  class,  were  interviewed  by  Miss  Jen- 
nings of  the  Vocational  and  Employment  Service  for  Juniors. 

These  interviews  were  conducted  individually  and  the  sub- 
jects were  aware  of  the  fact  that  their  statements  would  be  used 
either  for  placement  in  industry  or  placement  in  secondary 
school  courses  leading  eventually  to  professional  or  industrial 
careers.  Their  statements  were  regularly  entered  on  the  cards 
of  the  Vocational  and  Employment  Service  for  Juniors.  It  was 
found  on  comparing  the  results  of  these  interviews  with  the 
questionnaire  of  the  previous  month  that  in  only  two  cases  of 
the  forty  had  there  been  a  new  preference  expressed.  It  should 
be  noted  that  in  introducing  the  questionnaire  no  special  men- 
tion was  made  of  plans  for  vocational  guidance  but  that  the 
natural  tendency  of  a  graduating  class  is  probably  to  adopt  a 
forward-looking  attitude.  Miss  Jennings  had  not  seen  the  re- 
sults of  the  questionnaire  before  the  interviews  and  her  work 
was  therefore  free  from  any  suggestion  which  might  have  been 
caused  by  her  knowing  the  child's  previous  expression.  In  the 
comparison  of  results,  first,  second,  and  third  choices  were 
treated  as  of  equal  value  and  only  the  introduction  of  a  new 
element  was  taken  into  consideration. 

In  consideration  of  the  fact  that  these  children  probably  were 
predisposed  toward  stability  of  expression  owing  to  the  near- 
ness of  an  approaching  change,  and  also  in  order  to  find  out 
what  value,  if  any,  could  be  placed  upon  the  expressions  of  the 
children  in  the  grades  below  the  eighth,  the  second  method  was 
devised.  The  6-A  class  was  chosen  as  a  representative  group 
and  the  questionnaires  were  re-submitted  in  May,  1921,  after  an 


20 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 


interval  of  six  months.  No  discussion  had  taken  place  during 
this  interval  and  the  teachers  had  not  seen  the  results  of  the 
first  questionnaire  at  this  time.  Thirty-eight  children  re- 
sponded to  the  questionnaire  on  school  plans  and  recreations, 
and  thirty-six  of  these  to  the  one  on  occupations. 

In  analysing  the  results  it  was  found  that  there  were  four 
possibilities  for  each  choice  of  occupations  or  recreations.  First 
choice,  for  instance,  could  remain  unchanged  or  changed  to  sec- 
ond or  third  choice  or  disappear,  a  new  choice  being  substi- 
tuted. Choices  of  allied  occupations,  as  for  instance  a  change 
from  *'  typewriting  '*  to  **  office  work  "  were  treated  as  identi- 
cal choices. 

Choices  expressed  December,  1920,  checked  May,  1921: 

Occupations  Occupations 

First  choice                                 %  Second  choice                                % 

Unchanged 16  44.41  Unchanged 9  25.  1 

Changed    to    second..     5  13.9166.7  Changed   to   first 4  11.1166.7 

Changed  to  third.  ...     3  18.  sj  Changed   to   third 11  30.6] 

Changed   to  new 12  33.3  Changed   to   new 12  33.33 

TataL 36  100.0  Total 36  100.00 


Occupations 

Third  choice 

Unchanged 5 

Changed   to   first 4 

Changed  to  second...  3 

Changed  to   new 24 


Total. 


36  100.0 


Choices  showing  persistence  as  unchanged  or  changed  in  order  only.     60 
New  choices. 48 


% 

56 

44 


Total 108    100 


Becreationa 

Becreations 

Tint  choice 

% 

Second  choice 

% 

Unchanged , 

.     9    23.71 

Unchanged 

..  10    26.3^ 

Changed  to  second. , 

,     3      7.9 

.39.50 

Changed  to  first.  . 

..     6    15.8 

Changed   to   third. . , 

.     3      7.9 

Changed  to  third.  . 

..     4    10.5 

Changed   to  new 

.  23    60.5 

Changed  to   new. . . 
Total 

..  18    47.4 

Total 

.  38  100.0 

..  38  100.0 

152. 6 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE  21 

JRecreations 

Third  choice  % 

Unchanged 9  23.7"| 

Changed  to   first 3      7.91.36.9 

Changed  to  second...  2      5.3] 

Changed   to   new 24  63.1 

Total 38  100.0 

% 
Choices  showing  persistence  a9  unchanged  or  changed  in  order  onjr.  49  43 
New  choices. 65      57 

Total 114    100 

School  Plans 

% 

Unchanged 22    58 

Become  doubtful.   ...     9    24 
Changed 7    18 

Total 38  100 

In  order  to  determine  the  validity  of  the  order  of  placements 
of  choices  or,  in  other  words,  to  check  the  relative  value  of  first 
choice  versus  second  or  third,  the  order  of  comparison  was  re- 
versed and  the  choice  of  occupations  expressed  in  May,  1921, 
was  checked  by  the  one  expressed  in  December,  1920. 

Choices  expressed  May,  1921,  checked  December,  1920: 

Occupations  Occupations 

First  choice  %  Second  choice 

Unchanged 16  14.41  Unchanged 

Changed  from  second.     5  13.9169.4  Changed    from    first...  4    11.1 147. S 


Changed  from  third..     4     11.1 1  Changed  from  third. 

Changed    from    new.  .11    30.6  Changed  from  new. . 


Total 36  100.0  Total 36  100.0 

Occupations 

Third  choice  % 

Unchanged 4  11.1"| 

Changed  from  first...  3  8.3150.0 

Changed  from  second.  11  30.61 

Changed    from   new..  18  50.0 

Total 36  100.0 

% 

Choices  unchanged  or  changed  in  order  only 60      56 

New  choices.  48      44 

TotaL 108    100 


22 


INTERESTS   IN   RELATION   TO   INTELLIGENCE 


Becreations 

Becrcations 

First  choice 

% 

Second  choice 

% 

Unchanged 

.     8 

21.0] 

Unchanged 

..  10 

26.3 

Changed   to  second. . 

.     6 

15.8  U7. 4 

Changed  to  first.  .   . 

..     2 

5.3 

Changed  to  third. . . . 

.     4 

10.  el 

Changed  to  third. . . 

..     4 

10.5 

Changed  to  new 

.  20 

52.6 

Changed   to   new. . . 

..  22 

58.0' 

142.0 


Total. 


38 


Total. 


38 


Becreations 

Third  choice'  % 

Unchanged 8  21.0] 

Changed   to   first 3      7.9  (.39.4 

Changed  to   second...  4  10.5] 

Changed   to   new 23  60.5 

Total 38 

% 

Choices  unchanged  or  changed  in  order  only 49      43 

New  choices 65      57 

Total 114    100 


Inspection  of  these  results  shows  a  marked  difference  in  per- 
sistence of  choices  of  occupations  and  school  plans  against 
choices  of  recreations;  and  also  in  the  value  of  the  first  and 
second  choice  of  occupations  against  third  choices.  The  first 
choice  of  occupations  shows  66.7  per  cent,  of  persistent  choices, 
the  second  66.7  per  cent.,  and  the  third  33.3  per  cent.,  giving  the 
first  and  second  choices  a  marked  advantage.  In  checking  back- 
wards the  first  choice  shows  69.4  per  cent,  of  persistent  choices, 
the  second  47.2  per  cent.,  and  the  third  50  per  cent.  The  con- 
clusion seems  to  be  justified  that  the  first  choice  as  expressed 
by  the  questionnaire  used  in  this  investigation  is  an  indication 
of  a  persistence  of  interest  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  a  group 
investigation.  In  the  actual  placement  of  children  it  would  be 
advisable  to  leave  the  arrangements  flexible  enough  for  a 
change  at  the  end  of  a  term.  The  method  could  be  used  ad- 
t  vantageousl}''  as  a  first  approach  to  the  subject  of  vocational 
orientation  and  the  fact  that  this  degree  of  reliability  is  found 
in  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  grade,  in  a  spontaneous  reaction, 
without  the  stimulation  of  previous  discussion  or  preparation 
for  the  response,  seems  to  indicate  that  at  this  stage  of  develop- 
ment, if  not  earlier,  the  child  mind  is  in  a  receptive  state  for 
information,  discussion,  and  actual  experimentation  in  the  field 
of  vocational  enterprise. 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE  23 

This  positive  finding  is  emphasized  by  the  contrasting  result 
of  the  questionnaire  on  recreational  preferences.  Here  we  find 
39.5  per  cent,  of  persistent  first  choices,  52.6  per  cent,  of  per- 
sistent second  choices  and  36.9  per  cent,  of  persistent  third 
choices;  and  in  checking  backwards  47.4  per  cent,  persistent 
first  choices,  42  per  cent,  of  persistent  second  choices,  and  39.4 
per  cent,  of  persistent  third  choices.  It  was  therefore  decided 
that  the  child's  attitude  of  mind  toward  recreations  is  not 
stable  enough  to  obtain  significant  expressions  by  the  ^present 
method. 

The  results  were  foreshadowed  by  the  difference  in  behavior 
in  the  class  rooms  during  the  presentation  of  the  two  question- 
naires. *'  Occupations  "  and  *'  School  Plans  "  called  forth  a 
serious  mood.  The  prevalent  questions  were  as  to  the  mean- 
ings of  words:  as  to  whether  "  what  father  wants  me  to  do  " 
should  figure  in  the  response;  whether  it  was  permissible  to 
choose  something  that  was  not  on  the  list. 

When  '*  Eecreations  "  was  presented  there  was,  on  the  con- 
trary, a  prevailing  atmosphere  of  relaxation  with  occasional 
outbursts  of  hilarity  and  protests  against  being  restricted  to 
only  three  choices.  It  is  significant,  also,  that  only  one  child  of 
the  group  showed  no  persistent  choice  in  occupations  while 
fourteen  showed  no  persistent  choice  of  recreations.  The  value 
of  the  records  lies  in  individual  case  study,  as  a  persistent 
choice  of  recreations  in  the  face  of  such  general  instability 
would  indicate  a  notable  characteristic.  Undoubtedly  the  out- 
line of  a  personality  is  incomplete  without  a  knowledge  of  the 
favorite  recreation. 

The  following  study  of  the  distributions  according  to  the  in- 
telligence quotient  of  children  who  express  interest  in  the  dif- 
ferent occupations  is  founded  on  the  first  of  their  three  choices 
since  this  choice  is  on  the  whole  a  more  reliable  measure. 

Correspondence  of  Aims  and  Ideals 
The  questionnaire  sheet  concerning  the  family  history  and 
school  plans  of  the  children  contains  these  questions:  **  What 
do  you  expect  to  do  for  a  living  at  first!"  *'  What  do  you  ex- 
pect to  do  for  a  living  later?  "  Taking  the  twelve-year-olds  as 
a  fair  sampling  of  the  entire  group,  the  occupational  prefer- 
ences were  tabulated  against  the  life  prospects  as  expressed  by 
the  answers  to  the  questions  quoted  above.     The  number  of 


24  INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 

twelve-year-olds  who  responded  to  both  questions  was  311,  151 
boys  and  160  girls.  Each  of  the  three  preferences  was  consid- 
ered separately  in  relation  to  intelligence  quotient  and  to  repe- 
tition in  either  of  the  answers  to  the  questions  concerning  life 
prospects.  Discrepancies  between  the  answers  to  the  first  and 
second  of  these  questions  were  recorded  as  indications  of  neces- 
sary deferment  of  the  fulfillment  of  an  ambition.  Answers  to 
the  first  question  which  might  be  considered  in  any  way  as  step- 
ping-stones to  th,e  second  were  not  recorded  as  discrepancies. 
Record  was  also  made  of  the  number  of  cases  where  the  ques- 
tions concerning  life  prospects  were  left  doubtful  by  either  a 
question  mark  or  a  vague  reply. 

There  is  evidently  no  relation  between  the  intelligence  quot- 
ient and  any  one  of  the  problems  as  outlined.  All  the  distribu- 
tions according  to  I.  Q.  show  a  normal  curve  and  central  tend- 
ency similar  to  the  distribution  of  the  unselected  twelve-year- 
olds.  There  is,  however,  a  great  difference  between  the  corres- 
pondence of  each  of  the  three  preferences  with  life  prospects. 

PBatCENTAGE  OP  EKPKTITIONS 


Boys 

Girls 

Total 

First  choice 

40.4 

48.1 

45.0 

Second  choice 

12. C 

19.3 

16.0 

Third  choice 

6.6 

6.9 

6.7 

Pebcentaokof  Discekpanciks  Between  First  and  Second  Lifb  Peospbct 
Boys      6%  Girls    17%  Total    11.6% 

Pkeckntaqes  op  Vague  and  DouBTPtJL  Life  Prospects 
Boys    13.2%  Girls    21%  Total    17% 

After  due  allowance  has  been  made  for  instability  of  chil- 
dren's expressions,  it  still  remains  clear  that  a  large  percent- 
age of  children  see  no  connection  between  the  **  thing  you  like 
best  to  do  "  and  the  occupation  which  is  to  take  up  the  bulk  of 
working  hours  in  adult  life. 

The  small  percentage  of  discrepancies  between  the  first  and 
second  life  prospect,  together  with  the  small  percentage  of 
vague  and  doubtful  replies  shows  that  shildren  have  a  definite 
idea  of  their  life  chances  or  of  what  they  believe  to  be  the  limits 
of  their  prospects.  Since  work,  in  order  to  be  successful,  must 
have  a  degree  of  the  quality  of  absorbing  play,  should  not  na- 
tive interest  select  the  life  occupation  in  order  that  the  "  stimu- 


INTERESTS   IN   RELATION    TO   INTELLIGENCE  25 

lus  to  constant  endeavor,  the  joyous  exaltation  and  the  feeling 
of  buoyancy  *'  which  are  inherent  in  interest  shall  function  to 
prevent  drudgery  in  daily  work.  If  records  could  be  kept  not 
only  of  the  school  progress  of  children  but  also  of  the  mental 
ratings  according  to  different  types  of  scales  of  the  child's  am- 
bitions and  tendencies  together  with  a  home  record  to  show  the 
probability  of  his  being  able  to  realize  his  ideals,  many  discipli- 
nary problems  could  be  forestalled.  Not  only  would  mental 
capacity  rather  than  chronological  age  determine  the  rate  of 
learning  expected  from  a  student  but  the  type  of  work  making 
the  strongest  appeal  to  his  instinctive  likes  and  through  which 
the  natural  energy  is  released  would  be  used  as  a  guide  in  plan- 
ning educational  courses.  Qualitative  differentiation  in  the 
curriculum  would  then  begin  wherever  maladjustments  begin, 
instead  or  originating  at  an  arbitrary  point  known  as  element- 
ary school  graduation.  Unit  courses  in  grades  above  the  fourth 
and  perhaps  lower,  as  well  as  in  high  schools,  might  offer  such 
a  solution.  A  few  cases  are  taken  from  the  records  of  the  sur- 
vey to  illustrate  this  point.  These  individual  records,  although 
taken  from  the  group  survey,  have  been  verified  so  that  they 
are  free  from  any  unreliability  resulting  from  group  methods. 

Case  No.  1.  M.  F.  Age  14  yrs.  7  mo.  Grade  8-B.  Mental 
age,  composite  rating  15  yrs.  5  mo.  I.  Q.  106.  Born  in  the  U.  S. 
of  Italian  parents.  Second  in  order  of  birth  in  a  family  of  8 
children.  Father,  a  manufacturer  of  perfumery;  mother, 
housewife.  School  attainment,  Pintner  Educational  Scale,  is 
15  yrs.  2^  mos.  Educational  Quotient  104.  Accomplishment 
Quotient  98. 

This  girl's  first  choice  in  occupations  is  to  be  an  artist  and 
her  first  choice  in  recreations  is  visiting  picture  galleries.  Her 
second  choice  is  the  occupation  of  stenographer.  She  expects 
to  work  as  an  office  girl  at  first  and  later  to  become  a  **  crochet 
header."  She  expects  to  go  to  work  without  further  school 
plans. 

It  is  evident  that  we  have  here  a  discrepancy  between  aims 
and  ideals;  that  plans  for  the  future  hold  no  opportunity  for 
developing  possible  artistic  talent  or  general  background  in  ac- 
cordance with  her  mental  capacity. 

Case  No.  2.  E.  Z.  Age  15  yrs.  6  mo.  Grade  8-B.  Mental 
age,  composite  rating  11  yrs.  5  mo.  I.  Q.  82.  Born  in  Eussia. 
Third  in  order  of  birth  in  family  of  6  children ;  father,  harness 


26  INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 

business;  mother,  housekeeper.  School  attainment,  Pintner 
Educational  Scale,  13  yrs.  Educational  Quotient  87.  Accomp- 
lishment quotient  106.  First  choice  of  occupations,  musician; 
second,  secretary.  First  choice  of  recreations,  dancing ;  second, 
embroidery.  She  is  undecided  as  to  what  she  will  do  for  a 
living  and  has  no  plans  for  further  education  but  is  going  to 
school  next  year. 

This  is  obviously  a  case  for  vocational  guidance,  for  deter- 
mining the  presence  or  absence  of  a  special  talent  which  may 
compensate  for  the  lower  mental  capacity.  Her  rating  on  the 
non-language  scale  is  lower  than  on  the  language  scales,  which 
indicates  that  her  low  rating  is  not  due  to  foreign  birth. 

Case  No.  3.  L.  T.  Age  12  yrs.  8  mo.  Grade  8-B.  Mental 
age,  composite  rating,  17  yrs.  11  mo.  I.  Q.  141.  The  ratings  on 
language  and  non-language  scales  are  equally  high.  Born  in 
the  U.  S.  of  Italian  parents.  Father,  salesman  in  a  fruit 
market ;  mother,  housewife.  First  in  order  of  birth  in  a  family 
of  two  children.  School  attainment,  Pintner  Educational  Scale. 
16  yrs.  6  mo.  Educational  Quotient  130.  Accomplishment  Quot- 
ient 92. 

First  choice  of  occupations,  stenography ;  second,  taking  care 
of  home ;  third,  librarian.  First  choice  of  recreations,  listening 
to  music;  second,  drawing;  third,  writing  stories  and  poetry. 
She  expects  to  go  to  commercial  high  school. 

As  w^ill  be  seen  in  a  later  chapter,  the  recreational  choices 
have  been  discarded  as  unreliable  for  generalizations.  But 
they  are  quoted  in  this  case  to  show  that  although  the  limita- 
tions of  home  environment  have  probablj'^  prevented  a  high 
grade  mind  from  realizing  its  o\vti  possibilities  the  spontaneous 
enjoyments  give  testimony  of  its  higher  capacity. 

This  case  w^as  reported  to  the  Bureau  of  *'  Vocational  Guid- 
ance for  Juniors. ' '  The  parents  have  given  consent  for  a  change 
from  commercial  high  school  to  a  classical  course  and  special 
attention  will  be  paid  to  her  advancement  and  further  plans. 

Case  No.  4.  J.  M.  Age  15  yrs.  8  mo.  Grade  8-B.  Mental  age, 
composite  rating  10  yrs.  9  mo.  I.  Q.  72.  Born  in  the  U.  S.  of 
Italian  parents.  Third  in  order  of  birth  in  a  family  of  five 
children.  Father,  presser;  mother,  housewife.  School  attain- 
ment, Pintner  Educational  Scale,  11  yrs.  11  mo.  Educational 
Quotient  79.5.    Accomplishment  Quotient  110. 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE  27 

First  choice  of  occupations,  dressmaking ;  second,  taking  care 
of  home.  First  choice  of  recreations,  auto-driving;  second, 
listening  to  music. 

She  expects  to  go  to  work  and  vocational  school.  The  rating 
on  the  non-language  scale  is  lower  than  that  of  the  language 
scales,  which  indicates  that  the  low  mental  rating  is  not  caused 
by  foreign  birth. 

On  investigation  it  was  found  that  this  girl  had  always  been 
considered  as  a  problem  case;  too  high  grade  to  be  classified 
with  mental  defectives,  too  unstable  to  be  allowed  to  go  to  work. 
She  had  come  to  the  8th  grade  through  the  industrial  classes. 

The  case  is  cited  as  one  requiring  special  courses  and  not 
having  the  capacity  for  the  academic  work  above  5th  grade. 

The  data  of  these  case  studies  are  taken  from  the  regular 
questionnaire  forms  and  kept  in  abbreviated  form  on  individ- 
ual record  cards  4x6  in.  in  size.  The  method  is  not  prohibitive 
in  either  time  or  space  requirements  and  apart  from  the  giving 
of  the  tests  the  work  can  be  done  by  clerks. 

Measures  of  Intelligence 

For  the  study  of  so  large  a  group,  individual  examinations 
were  prohibitive.  It  was  necessary,  therefore,  to  select  from 
available  group  scales  a  team  of  tests  approximating  as  nearly 
as  possible  the  results  of  careful  individual  examinations. 
Since  the  comparisons  were  to  be  founded  on  mental  age  and 
intelligence  quotient  it  was  further  necessary  to  use  the  group 
tests  for  which  age  standards  had  been  worked  out.  In  order 
to  avoid  unduly  disturbing  the  school  routine  and  creating  the 
atmosphere  of  excitement  and  nervous  tension  so  fatal  to  the 
validity  of  mental  records,  the  tests  were  given  in  the  class 
rooms  and  the  work  of  any  session  did  not  exceed  the  time  limit 
of  a  departmental  period;  that  is,  forty  minutes,  including  all 
the  accessory  activities  such  as  introduction,  and  collection  of 
papers. 

The  mental  ratings  of  the  boys  of  Public  School  No.  11  were 
taken  from  the  records  of  the  survey  made  by  Dr.  L.  S.  Holling- 
worth  and  her  students.  This  survey  consisted  of  the  Pintner 
Survey  Tests  generously  checked  by  individual  examinations 
on  the  Stanford-Binet. 


28  INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 

The  scales  used  for  the  840  girls  of  Public  School  No.  3,  Man- 
hattan, and  for  the  group  of  200  boys  of  the  6-A  class  of  Public 
School  No.  95,  Manhattan,  were  Scales  A  and  B,  Form  1,  of  the 
National  Intelligence  Tests  (17)  Pintner  Non-Language  Scale, 
and  Kelley-Trabue  Language  Completion  Alpha  (19).  The 
total  time  given  to  the  tests  of  intelligence  was  approximately 
two  hours. 

The  results  were  formed  into  the  following  composite : 

National  Intelligence  Tests,  Form  1,  Scales  A  and  B 

combined weight  4. 

Pintner  Non-Language  Scale weight  2. 

Kelley-Trabue  Language  Completion,  Alpha weight  1. 

The  weights  given  to  each  scale  were  determined  by  the  time 
required  for  the  test.  The  lesser  weight  given  to  the  Language 
Completion  Scale  was  also  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the 
school  population  is  largely  of  Italian  birth  or  descent  and  that 
a  language  test  is  therefore  of  lesser  value.  As  will  be  seen  on 
inspection  of  the  curves  of  distribution  the  median  mental  age 
of  the  group  was,  in  fact,  according  to  this  scale,  one  year  below 
the  median  mental  age  of  the  group  according  to  the  other 
scales.  In  forming  the  composite  this  discrepancy  was  rectified 
>  by  adding  one  year  to  the  mental  age  of  each  record  on  this 
scale. 

The  norms  used  in  computing  the  mental  age  according  to  the 
National  Intelligence  Tests  were  those  found  by  Terman  in  the 
Vallejo  Survey(20)  for  the  Pintner  Non-Language  Scale  and 
the  Kelley-Trabue  Alpha,  the  norms  published  by  the  authors. 
Interpolations  were  worked  out  by  months.  For  the  higher  levels 
beyond  the  fifteenth  year  in  the  National  Intelligence  Tests, 
extra-polations  were  worked  out  by  taking  the  average  incre- 
ment of  the  two  preceding  years  as  the  probable  increment  of 
the  next  year.  This  increment  was  then  divided  by  twelve  for 
the  increment  per  month.  In  the  Pintner  Non-Language  Scale, 
and  Kelley-Trabue,  estimations  were  unnecessary  since  the 
norms  are  worked  out  for  the  upper  levels. 

Chart  1  shows  the  total  distribution  according  to  the  three 
types  of  scales :  National  Intelligence  Tests  A  and  B,  Form  1 ; 
Kelley-Trabue  Language  Completion  Alpha,  and  the  Pintner 


INTERESTS   IN   RELATION   TO    INTELLIGENCE 


29 


Units  of  57. 
NaMoruxl 
a*  b. 


Tot- ex  I      Disl-n- button.     CHART.  I 


I^B    t    7      y      9     /o     </     /i     15     #9^     AT    JS     TjF     /r    /^ 
*^  •/     t-'^    tfa  ZiG  3D.tf  lis    i-y  i'S  x-^  /t    .jL      .^ 


Kc\Uy-T*!abw€. 


H.B.  4 '  Y     f     9    **»    ''      i*^^    ^a    ''f   ^    ^    ^7    'T    ^ 

%,  •/     •-/   /il   3/7  i-l'i  '2-5  i'f  4  4    5J  2^    .7       y     ^ 


RnHier  Non-joujoo^e.^f.^'; 


a- 1 

13-//. 


%.   •/  *•?  ♦'^  52  'y/  WO  '^t  #.^  4-7  7  3  4.-<f  z  J     9     y 


Non-Language  Scale.  The  total  number  of  cases  for  each  of 
these  was  respectively:  824,  857,  and  878.  The  frequencies  are 
given  in  percentages  in  order  to  equalize  the  surfaces  of  distri- 
bution. Units  of  5  per  cent,  are  represented  by  each  square  of 
one-fourth  inch.     For  purposes  of  comparison  the  base-lines 


30  INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 

showing  the  mental  ages  are  placed  so  that  the  mental  ages  of 
the  three  coincide. 

As  may  be  seen  by  inspection  of  the  charts,  the  distribution 
according  to  the  National  Intelligence  and  Pintner  Non-Lan- 
guage Scales  show  a  marked  similarity.  The  median  mental 
age,  the  25  percentile  and  the  75  percentile  differ  by  less  than 
half  a  year.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  curve  of  the  National  In- 
telligence Tests  there  is  an  abrupt  stop  at  the  ninth  year  of 
mental  age.  Only  one  child  of  824  who  took  these  tests  had  a 
mental  age  below  9  years.  In  consideration  of  the  fact  that  the 
survey  covered  only  grades  5-B  to  8-B  and  that  the  ungraded 
classes  were  not  included,  we  may  infer  that  the  National  In- 
telligence Tests  in  this  combined  form  are  an  efficient  measure 
for  identiying  the  amount  of  retardation  at  present  used  for 
placement  in  ungraded  classes  from  these  grades.  The  curve 
of  the  Pintner  Non-Language  Scale,  on  the  contrary,  extends 
downward  to  6  years  mental  age.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  curve 
the  discrepancies  between  the  three  scales  are  slight.  Children 
of  high  I.  Q.,  that  is,  above  110  according  to  the  National  Intelli- 
gence Tests,  evidently  overcome  their  language  handicaps  suf- 
ficiently to  rate  equally  as  a  group  on  the  two  scales. 

The  inter-relations  of  the  findings  of  the  three  scales  is  made 
clearer  by  their  correlations.  Equal  distribution  does  not  indi- 
cate equal  meaning.  A  group  of  people  may  be  equally  dis- 
tributed on  a  scale  of  honesty,  and  on  another  for  physical 
beauty,  and  have  a  zero  correlation  in  the  two  traits.  A  normal 
curve  merely  indicates  that  the  measure  is  valid  and  the  group 
probably  unselected.  It  is  the  correlation  which  designates  the 
comparative  agreement  in  the  traits  which  are  the  factors  mak- 
ing for  success  in  the  tests  used. 

Correlations  have  been  worked  out  between  the  Pintner  Non- 
Language  Scale  and  the  National  Intelligence  Tests  with  the 

following  results.    The  Pearson  Product  Moment  (r  =  ■  .. .    — 

_^  6x6y 

was  the  method  used  in  all  the  correlations  found  in  this  investi- 
gation. 

620  girls  Chronological  Age  10  —  16  Grade  5B  —  8B  r  51  P.  E.  =  .02 
188  boys  Chronological  Age  10  —  15  Grade  6A  —  r  31  P.  E.  =  .04 
106  girls  Chronological  Age  10  —  16  Grade  6A  —       r  25  P.  E.  =  .06 

Effort  was  made  to  determine  the  effect  of  foreign  birth  on 
the  results  of  the  language  completion  scale.    It  was  found  that 


INTERESTS.  IN    RELATION    TO    INTELLIGENCE 


31 


CHflKT.  2.. 
American  oorn  Cnildren  of  American  Born  rarents. 
103   cases.       Units    of  3. 


Tcsi-s . 


t^.    <j     lo     If       ti      IS      14, 

S^.  I.    1.    '^"   2y    27    // 


<«-    It. 


,j     it 


^ 


Median 


7|^    KdU>^^  T/abui 


S/4    3      Jt»     '^       '<?      5^       "       <*»•      "?       3       Z       / 


of  those  who  had  been  tested  by  both  scales  there  were  103  who 
were  American  born  children  of  American  born  parents.  The 
records  of  these  children  were  distributed  according  to  the  I.  Q. 
on  the  National  Intelligence  Tests  A  and  B  combined,  and  also 


32  INTERESTS   IN   RELATION   TO   INTELLIGENCE 

on  the  Kelley-Trabue  Completion  Alpha.  The  results  are 
shown  on  Chart  2.  The  mental  ages,  represented  by  the  base 
lines  are  drawn  parallel.  The  frequencies  are  represented  in 
units  of  3  to  each  square  of  one-fourth  inch.  Comparison  of 
these  distributions  with  those  of  Chart  1  emphasizes  their  sig- 
nificance. It  will  be  seen  that  although  the  median  mental  age 
of  the  entire  group  as  shown  on  Chart  1  is  11  years  3  months, 
according  to  the  Language  Completion  Scale  in  contrast  to  12 
years  1  month  on  the  Non-Language  Scale,  and  12  years  2^^ 
months  on  the  National  Intelligence  Scale,  the  group  of  Ameri- 
can born  children  of  American  born  parents  has  a  median  men- 
til  age  of  12  years  10  months  on  the  Language  Completion 
Scale,  in  agreement  with  13  years  0  months  on  the  National  In- 
telligence Tests.  The  greater  variability  found  in  the  distribu- 
tion according  to  the  scores  in  Language  Completion  Scale, 
made  by  children  who  represent  the  second  generation  in 
America  may  be  due  to  the  continued  use  of  the  Italian  Lan- 
guage in  some  of  the  homes. 

The  Pintnbr  Non-Language  Scale  as  a  Test  of  Interest  in 

Mechanics 

The  low  correlation  of  the  Pintner  Non-Language  Scale, 
where  the  language  factor  has  been  eliminated,  with  the  com- 
bined National  Intelligence  Tests  leads  to  the  question  of  what 
traits  are  measured  by  the  former. 

Is  there  any  homogeneous  group  which  shows  a  marked  dif- 
ference in  distribution  on  the  two  scales?  Are  there  any  mental 
activities  called  into  play  by  the  non-language  scale  which  do 
not  function  so  largely  in  tests  in  which  language  is  the  medium 
for  response?  Conceding  that  the  mind  works  as  a  whole  in 
each  mental  act,  is  there  not  a  difference  between  the  mind  set 
required  for  response  to  arithmetical  reasoning  and  naming 
opposites  and  that  required  in  form-naming  tests,  or  learning 
by  substitution  of  symbols,  following  directions  given,  using 
dots  and  showing  steps  in  movement  with  a  pointer,  and  com- 
pleting similar  drawings  in  inverted  positions?  Even  in  tests 
of  associative  power  such  as  sentence  completion  and  picture 
completion,  is  there  not  more  of  eye  hand  co-ordination  and 
visualization  required  in  the  latter  and  more  abstraction  in  the 
former?    Equally,  in  occupations  such  as  for  example  drafts- 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCB  33 

man,  civil  engineer,  architect,  do  not  the  same  powers  of  visuali- 
zation and  eye  hand  co-ordination  make  for  success,  in  contrast 
to  the  needs  of  lawyers  or  bookkeepers,  and  others?  Is  it  not  in 
accordance  with  known  facts  concerning  individual  differences 
to  suppose  that  some  thought  circuits  include  the  ocular  nerves 
and  the  nerves  of  the  hand  while  others  find  greater  readiness 
in  the  cerebral  areas!  The  end  product  may  be  of  equal  value 
but  the  type  of  output  will  be  essentially  different. 

The  questionnaire  method  used  in  this  investigation  offers  a 
group  of  104  children  who  expressed  a  preference  for  occupa- 
tions in  which  manual  ability  and  visualization  are  assumed  to 
be  prerequisite.  This  choice  was  expressed  as  a  first  or  second 
choice,  third  choice  being  discarded  as  too  unreliable  for  the 
purpose  of  indicating  a  definite  trend.  The  group  was  composed 
as  follows: 

Preference  in  occupation  No.  of  cases 

Civil  Engineer 2 

Electrician 8 

Auto  Mechanic 38 

Engineer. 5 

Mechanic 18 

Carpenter 9 

Blacksmith 1 

Embroiderer 4 

Shipbuilder 1 

Gardener 4 

Architect 11 

Printer 3 

Total 104 


The  chronological  age  of  the  group  shows  a  distribution  from 
10  years  2  months  to  15  years  9  months,  the  median  being  12 
years  5  months,  the  25  percentile,  11  years  9  months,  75  per- 
centile, 13  years  6  months.  The  group  is  therefore  not  selected 
for  chronological  age  since  the  median  chronological  age  of  the 
entire  group  is  12  years  11  months,  25  percentile  12  years  1 
month,  and  75  percentile  13  years  11  months. 

Graphs  A.  and  B.  of  chart  3  show  the  distributions  of  this 
group  according  to  I.  Q.,  on  the  National  Intelligence  Tests  and 
the  Pintner  Non-Language  Scale.  The  medians,  25  percentiles, 
75  percentiles,  and  semi-interquartile  range,  are : 


34  INTERESTS   IN   RELATION   TO   INTELLIGENCE 

National  Intelligence  Pintner  Non-Language 

Test  I.  Q.  Scale  I.  Q. 

25  percentile 83  91 

Median 91  99 

75  percentile 97  113.5 

Q 7.2  11.07 

Bange 65  to  119  (one  out-  55  to  150 

standing  140) 

The  children  who  express  interest  in  mechanical  occupations 
make  higher  scores  on  the  Pintner  Non-Language  Scale.  The 
median  mental  age  according  to  this  scale  is  higher  than  the  75 
percentile  of  the  same  group  according  to  the  National  Intelli- 
gence Tests,  and  the  percentile  according  to  the  former  is  equal 
the  median  according  to  the  latter. 

In  order  to  investigate  still  further,  a  selection  was  made 
from  this  group  of  104  children,  of  those  who  both  in  first  and 
second  choices  expressed  interest  in  the  occupations  listed 
above.  This  second  group  consisted  of  32  children.  The  dif- 
ferences shown  by  the  preceding  group  are  here  accentuated. 
The  25  percentile  according  to  the  Pintner  Non-Language  Scale 
is  slightly  higher  than  the  75  percentile  according  to  the  Na- 
tional Intelligence  Tests.  These  distributions  are  shown  by 
graphs  c  and  d  of  chart  3. 

National  Intelligence  Pintner  Non-Language 

Test  I.  Q.  Scale  I.  Q. 

25  percentile 84.7  94.9 

Median 88.7  104.5 

75  Percentile 94  124.6 

Q 4.7  14.84 

Eange 65  to  109  80  to  149 

As  a  check  upon  these  results,  a  third  group  was  selected,  con- 
sisting of  those  whose  choices  in  occupations,  recreations  or  life 
plans,  contained  no  indication  of  interest  along  mechanical  lines. 
This  group  numbered  185.  The  distributions  are  shown  in 
graphs  e  and  f,  chart  4.  Here  we  find  that  the  median  I.  Q. 
according  to  the  National  Intelligence  Tests  is  about  7  points 
higher  than  the  median  I.  Q.  according  to  the  Pintner  Non-Lan- 
guage Scale.  The  25  percentile  of  the  National  Intelligence 
Tests  is  about  8  points  higher  than  that  of  the  Pintner  Non- 
Language  Scale.    The  75  percentile  of  the  National  Intelligence 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 


35 


ht'eresi'  in  l^ccKamcs. 
Uni^s  oT   2. 

iV  or  Z*^  choice.      J3 


%    V. 


CH^RT.3 


K aV« ona\    I  n tc II  i  ^ct  Te sis 


i^  -jf^  «  -s^  io  ■- to  JO  —  pQ  10  ~-  f^  90  -  <f^  loa  -»•<)  «a-  «^  /xo-'ia  yj«  -on  y«^  -  /«  /so  -'a^  /fed 


roha\    loiv. 
Q  -  II- T 


99 


r^ 


4 


/ii^+     I*4on-[anJua£e    Scale. 


ii*-u.o  d'o-y*  fco-'^O  y-^f  TO-r<?  90-^9/00-/09  Ho-iia  lip-ijolbo-fiqiuo  -luelGC'-ist)  <t« 
^  /'  /      ^     3.     5     6^  /^    /4    t     5     //5    if.    ^    y     if    2.     /      2.'   2 


w  InreresI'm  Mecha»fiics      117 
»**'snd    2.*^ choices. 
loVal    32..  ^cT 


m 


N  aKonal    1  nVe  H  \f  e  hte  Te^  Js 


U-i/^   i'o-  i"o  feo-  fee   Yo-  y^  70-  g^  <7o-9f  It>o-I0<l  lio-i/if   /lo-ll^  Ho-lS<f  lUt-H^cf /So-iS<^ 


'Co 


^  )  Ihl'cresls  in  KlccWdmcs. 

•^  SSA    2"*  choices.  ^ 


/»(/.  y 


/iL(  t 


I '    1  i—     I     I     I     —1     I  1   ^ 

•^-V9'S*"*'?  A<»-*9  T^'Tf  ^6-19    fo-  <f<j  no-to^  Ho~no  /lo-ti^  *ic-ti^ /u*-"^ '■'''-'i^  no 


36 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION   TO   INTELLIGENCE 


f/«*  fot 


CHART.  4-. 


tf^-  ti-o . So-Sq  .  bo-  bq.  yo-  yq-  ?o-  fo.  4o- go. /oo- /»a.  t/o-  nq.  ixo-uq.  /io- tjo'iitc-'iuj.  /jo-fn 


f) 


No  mte^s^  »Vi       ur 
mechanics. 


Non-  |on|ua^e   Scale 
Q  '    15- OS. 


U^.tHf.  So-SQ.  i>o-4-g.  yo-yq.  tO-rq  q^'Oa.  fao.(oq.Ho-  /fo.  liaiM  tSo-fio  .luo-itto  ist-iso  /6> 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE  37 

Tests  is,  on  the  contrary,  4  points  lower  than  that  of  the  Pintner 
Non-Language  Scale. 

National  Intelligence  Pintner  Non-Language 

Test  I.  Q.  Scale  I.  Q. 

25  percentile 91,4  82.8 

Median 100.4  93.8 

75  percentile 108.6  112.9 

Q. 8.6  15.05 

Bange 60  to  149  10  to  160 

It  is  significant  that  the  groups  shown  on  chart  3,  c  and  d,  are 
composed  entirely  of  boys  and  that  groups  a  and  b,  total  104, 
contain  only  12  girls.  On  the  contrary  groups  e  and  f,  chart  4, 
contain  only  11  boys.  Separate  distributions  for  boys  and  for 
girls  regardless  of  occupational  preferences  were  therefore 
necessary.    They  show  the  following  differences: 

NATIONAL  INTELLIGENCE  TESTS 

Boys  Girls  Total 

L  Q.  I.  Q.  I.  Q. 

25  percentile 81.7  87.4  85.8 

Median 90.1  97.0  95.3 

75  percentile 98.0  107.2  105.5 

Q 8.15  9.9  9.85 

Bange. 60  to  125  60  to  150  60  to  160 

NON-LANGUAGE  SCALE 

Boys  Girls  Total 

I.  Q.  I.  Q.              I.  Q. 

25  percentile. 93.0  81.1                83.2 

Median 101.5  91.6                94.0 

75  percentile 117.8  105.7  108.8 

Q 12.4  12.3                12.8 

Bange 65  to  160  40  to  160  40  to  160 

Since  the  boys  in  the  preceding  tables  are  taken  from  class 
6A  only,  and  the  girls  from  grades  5B  to  8B,  the  distributions 
of  6A  girls  are  given  separately : 

National  Intelligence  Pintner  Non-Language 

Girls  6A  Test  I.  Q.  Scale  I.  Q. 

25  percentile 82.5  66.5 

Median 94.6  84.6 

75  percentile 103.25  96.4 

Q 10.37  14.95 

Bange 60  to  130  45  to  145 

Of  this  group  of  108  girls,  only  three  expressed  preferences 
for  mechanical  occupations  as  here  defined. 
In  comparing  these  distributions  we  find  that  the  children 


38  INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 

expressing  mechanical  preferences  have  approximately  the  same 
median  and  variability  as  all  boys,  and  that  the  children  show- 
ing no  mechanical  preferences  agree  in  median  and  variability 
with  all  girls.  On  the  other  hand,  all  boys  with  the  exception  of 
the  11  quoted  above  showed  a  mechanical  preference  in  some 
one  part  of  their  records. 

The  differences  between  the  distributions  of  boys  and  girls 
may  be  stated  quantitatively :  31  per  cent  of  girls  equal  or  ex- 
ceed the  median  of  boys  on  the  Non-Language  Scale,  while  71 
per  cent  of  girls  equal  or  exceed  the  median  of  boys  on  the  Na- 
tional Intelligence  Tests.  As  may  be  seen  by  reference  to  the 
respective  tables  given  above,  in  the  total  distribution  of  boys 
and  girls  the  medians  according  to  the  two  scales  are  only  one 
point  apart,  although  the  variability  is  greater  according  the 
Non-Language  Scale.  The  composite  of  these  scales  forms  a 
test  of  intelligence  in  which  no  sex  difference  is  shown.  Studies 
of  sex  differences  reported  by  Thorndike(34)  would  lead  us  to 
expect  this  result  of  a  well-balanced  scale  of  general  intelli- 
gence. 

We  may  conclude,  in  view  of  these  findings,  that  there  is,  on 
the  whole,  a  high  degree  of  correspondence  between  interest  in 
mechanics  as  here  defined  and  success  by  the  Pintner  Non- 
Language  Scale;  and  that  this  interest  in  mechanics  and  this 
correspondence  involve  the  activities  preferred  by  boys.  We 
cannot,  from  the  present  data,  discriminate  between  sex  dif- 
ference and  difference  of  interests. 

All  groups  show  a  greater  variability  according  to  the  Non- 
Language  Scale  than  according  to  the  National  Intelligence 
Tests  when  distributed  according  to  I.  Q.  These  variabilities 
compare  with  that  of  the  I.  Q.  according  to  Stanford-Binet  (32, 
page  40)  as  follows : 

Q.  Range 

Stanford-Binet 8.65  56-145 

National  Intelligence  Tests 9.85'  60-150 

Non-Language  Scale 12.8  40-160 

Variability  according  to  mental  age: 

Stanford-Binet    (14  yr,   group) 13  mos. 

National   Intelligence    Tests 14 .5  moa. 

Non-Language  Scale 17.5  mos. 

A  greater  variability  might  be  expected  in  a  test  of  special 
ability  than  a  test  of  general  intelligence.     A  close  study  of 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE  39 

successes  in  each  of  the  tests  composing  the  Non-Language 
Scale  in  relation  to  other  tests  of  the  same  scale  and  in  relation 
to  sex  differences  will  be  necessary  to  assure  a  definite  value  in 
outlining  occupational  prospects. 

An  investigation  by  Miss  Thyra  Smith  into  the  relation  of'' 
the  different  scales  to  success  in  industrial  training  is  now  in 
progress  in  the  psychological  laboratory  of  Children's  Hospital, 
Randall's  Island.  If  interest  and  capacity  are  as  nearly  allied 
in  industrial  as  in  educational  work,  we  must  expect  corrobora- 
tion of  the  present  results.  Since  we  have  no  measure  of  the 
degree  of  interest  in  the  data  here  presented,  we  are  unable  to 
find  the  correlation  of  single  tests  of  the  Non-Language  Scale 
to  interest  in  mechanics.  This  disability  will  not  be  present  in 
the  research  above-named  since  a  rating  scale  will  form  the 
basis  of  comparison. 

Vocational  Interests  and  School  Plans  in  Relation  to 
Intelligence  Quotients 

A  low  mental  capacity  does  not  deter  children  from  entering 
high  schools.  Studies  of  elimination  show  that  only  a  small  per- 
centage of  entrants  remain  to  graduate,  but  evidently  the  striv- 
ing for  improvement,  the  interest  in  self-advancement,  the  for- 
ward looking  element  in  human  nature  is  strong  enough  to  carry 
children  of  actual  dull  normal  and  border-line  capacity  through 
the  upper  grades  of  the  elementary  school  for  which  they  have 
only  a  limited  capacity  and  for  the  work  of  which  they  needs 
must  use  a  maximum  effort  for  a  minimum  attainment.  Further- 
more these  interests  keep  them  striving  onward  through  the 
ninth  and  tenth  grades  seeing  only  **as  through  a  glass  darkly" 
the  implications  of  what  is  going  on  about  them;  losing  self- 
respect  through  repeated  failures ;  acquiring  wrong  conceptions 
of  the  relations  of  effort  to  attainment;  forming  pernicious  life 
habits  in  adolescent  years. 

The  findings  here  presented  have  been  substantiated  by  the 
results  of  tests  given  to  high  school  freshmen.  Nine  hundred 
and  forty-nine  entrants  of  the  Washington  Irving  High  School, 
New  York  City,  January  28,  1921,  were  given  as  group  test 
Haggerty  Delta  11.  The  distribution  was  shown  to  range  from 
I.  Q.  70  to  135  with  a  median  I.  Q.  of  103.8.  Similarly,  in  1918, 
Wm.  M.  Proctor   (29)   and  collaborators  examined  107  high 


40  INTERESTS   IN   RELATION   TO   INTELLIGENCE 

school  freshmen  of  Palo  Alto,  California.  The  Stanford-Binet 
scale  was  used  and  these  individual  examinations  yielded  re- 
sults in  conformity  with  the  New  York  findings.  The  median 
of  the  group  was  found  to  be  I.  Q.  105.9,  the  25  percentile  I.  Q. 
94.7,  and  the  75  percentile  was  117. 

These  findings  are  in  agreement  with  those  of  the  present 
investigation.  Children  planning  to  go  to  high  school  have  ap- 
proximately the  same  distribution  as  those  who  actually  enter. 

The  number  of  children  who  responded  to  the  questionnaire 
concerning  school  plans  was  1,206.  Four  hundred  and  eight  or 
33.8  per  cent  planned  to  go  to  high  school,  577  or  47.8  per  cent 
planned  to  go  to  work  with  part  time  secondary  education,  221 
or  18.3  per  cent  planned  to  go  to  work  only.  The  percentage 
planning  to  go  to  high  school  corresponds  roughly  to  the  per- 
centage reported  as  entering  high  schools  by  Strayer  in  his  re- 
port of  318  cities. (21)  Comparing  the  percentages  of  girls  and 
boys  respectively  we  have  the  following : 


High  School 

Part  Time 

Work 

No.  of  Oases     % 

No.  of  Cases       % 

No.  of  Cases      % 

Boys 

148              27 

306              55.8 

94            17.1 

Girls.  .  .  .  . , 

260              39.5 

271              41 

127            19.2 

Although  approximately  the  same  percentage  of  either  sex  is 
planning  for  secondary  education  in  one  form  or  another,  the 
number  of  boys  who  are  forced  to  do  part  time  work  exceeds 
that  of  girls  by  nearly  15  per  cent.  It  should  be  noted  that  the 
social  status  prevailing  in  the  three  schools  included  in  this 
survey  are  about  equal. 

The  distributions  and  central  tendencies  of  the  three  groups 
are  shown  in  the  following  graphs. 

The  validity  of  mental  ratings  founded  on  the  National  In- 
telligence Tests  is  assumed  in  the  present  discussion.  The 
correlation  with  Stanford-Binet  as  worked  out  by  the  authors 
is  .93(21) ;  and  the  validity  of  classifications  according  to  the 
Stanford-Binet  has  been  established  by  Terman  and  his 
co-workers.  (22) 

The  percentages  quoted  in  the  deductions  and  conclusions 
leave  a  wide  margin  for  the  discussion  of  the  exact  I.  Q.  required 
for  high  school  work.    The  discussion  is  not  within  the  scope  of 


INTERESTS   IN    RELATION   TO    INTELLIGENCE 


41 


Ct)iUren  planning  h>  ^o 
to  Hi^H  School. 
5l4»o  coses .  ^^r\s  IXolaLt^oJ. 
(ff leases,  boysj 

Freouencics  are  g'«ve« 
in  unites  of  lo  cases. 


Units  df  2P,,(^.,„  ^^.^ 
25X.<?/.Z . 


CHftRr.  5. 


ISl.iit'l 


<  — ! 11         '      '        1 

\.Q.   5»-y^<»»-4^^-79  gO-«^9o.^/d«-/oy4f*.f<^/Z»vayi3»./jy«uB-4u*  /ret 
W»**        ,  «        ,.        I.        ^.        ...        e..       -,-.       .. 


/      2>     u     ^     qt4-   112     itf-    Xh    y 


CWWren  planning  h?  go 
To  worK  wiHi  pari"  hme 
Secornlary  cducahon. 

io6  cases.  bo^Sj  p-p_ 


21*  q'4>  + 


, , I I ! '  1 

%li         \io   ^t  no  /t3  i^fc  it-y    /G    <f     3      ' 


(T.    Children  planning  fo  ^ 


iZy  cases,  girti.) 


a-  ^+ 


isZ^ff. 


1 


I ,  (5.  SO'Sai—t'tfPO-^  to.^<fo-j^/oa  v«^  (/«  -«^  UolKffi*  -'*9  A*  -A«^    /* 


42  INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 

this  study,  but  the  data  might  furnish  a  basis  for  a  follow-up 
study  of  the  children  involved. 

•  It  will  be  seen  that  the  high  school  does  select  somewhat  from 
the  upper  end  of  the  curve  of  distribution.  But  it  is  the  over- 
lapping of  the  three  curves  which  is  significant.  In  the  present 
organization  of  the  academic  high  school  approximately  50  per 
cent  of  the  children  who  enter  high  school  are  attempting  a 
hopeless  task.  Twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  part  time  students, 
and  15  per  cent  of  those  going  to  work  have  the  mental  capacity 
for  high  school  graduation.  And  since,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
expressions  of  6th  grade  children  by  the  questionnaire  method 
are  sufficiently  stable  for  drawing  general  conclusions,  plans 
could  be  made  in  the  elementary  school  to  avoid  waste  of  public 
money  and  of  human  energy.  Given  the  learning  curve  and 
upper  mental  limits  of  each  child  by  means  of  mental  tests; 
given  also  his  spontaneous  expression  of  interest ;  courses  could 
be  provided  in  which  the  motive  forces  of  the  child  could  be 
used  to  assure  his  fullest  development.  Unit  courses  such  as 
are  proving  successful  in  dealing  with  the  high  school  problem 
would  go  far  to  save  both  teacher  and  class  from  futile  efforts. 

Future  research  will  no  doubt  enable  us  to  evaluate  the  child's 
desire  by  means  of  tests  of  actual  capacity  for  different  types 
of  work.  But  even  with  such  information  on  hand  we  must  ex- 
pect to  find  a  curve  of  distribution  according  to  general  intelli- 
gence within  €ach  group.  Two  boys  may  express  equal  en- 
thusiasm for  learning  a  trade.  The  one  with  lower  intelligence 
may  find  his  upper  limit  of  development  in  a  type  of  work 
usually  done  by  apprentices ;  the  other,  of  high  mentality,  may 
pass  quickly  through  the  lower  stages  of  the  work  to  the  status 
of  an  expert.  But  both  will  be  functioning  according  to  best 
advantage,  each  gaining  the  natural  satisfaction  due  to  the 
working  out  of  the  inner  drives  of  his  organism.  Again,  ordi- 
nary life  experience  teaches  us  that  there  is  a  differentiation  of 
interest  within  each  trade,  profession,  or  art.  Of  two  musicians, 
one  will  get  a  better  response  from  a  stringed  instrument,  while 
to  another  inspiration  comes  through  the  touch  of  ivory  keys. 

The  distribution  according  to  intelligence  of  men  actually 
placed  in  different  occupations  is  given  in  the  report  of  the  Divi- 
sion of  Psychology  of  the  Office  of  the  Surgeon  General  of  the 
U.  S.  Army.  (23)    Although  the  medians  of  the  different  groups 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE  43 

rise  gradually  from  the  group  whose  middle  50  per  cent  is  of 
common  laborer  in  C  rating  to  that  of  engineer  officer  in  A  rat- 
ing, the  rise  is  by  almost  imperceptible  degrees  and  the  over- 
lapping is  significant.  General  electricians,  for  instance,  ranged 
from  1.6%  rated  D  (up  to  I.  Q.  63)  to  9.8%  rated  A  (I.  Q.  120  or 
over) ;  stationary  gas  enginemen  from  2.7%  rated  D  to  2% 
rated  A. 

Thorndike  comments  on  the  variability  of  I.  Q.  within  the 
occupational  groups  of  the  army: (33)  **No  less  significant  is 
the  variability  within  each  occupational  group.  Taking  the 
measurements  as  they  stand,  the  75  percentile  unskilled  laborer 
is  up  to  the  level  of  the  median  general  mechanic,  tool  room  ex- 
pert, or  automobile  mechanic  and  up  to  the  level  of  the  25  per- 
centile mechanical  engineer.  The  75  percentile  railroad  clerk 
is  at  the  level  of  the  average  accountant  or  civil  engineer.  The 
75  percentile  receiving  or  shipping  clerk  is  at  the  level  of  the 
25  percentile  physician.  This  variability  w^ould  be  reduced  by 
longer  and  repeated  tests,  but,  unless  the  test  as  given  has  a 
very  large  probable  error,  it  would  still  be  enormous.  It  would 
still  imply  that  there  were  in  the  occupations  supposed  to  give 
little  opportunity  for  the  use  of  intellect,  a  very  large  number 
of  gifted  men  and  consequently  a  large  unused  surplus  of 
intellect." 

These  occupations  were  represented  by  numbers  of  men  for 
sufficient  reliable  curves.  But  in  studying  the  expressed  in- 
terests of  children  in  occupations  it  was  found  that  the  number 
of  cases  in  each  specific  occupation  was  too  small  for  statistical 
accuracy.  It  was  necessary  for  purposes  of  comparison  to  make 
general  classifications.  The  occupations  were  therefore  divided 
into  four  groups:  skilled  trades,  mechanics,  clerical  work,  and 
professions. 

These  groups  were  composed  as  follows : 

Skilled  Trades                                                                     No.  of  Cases 

Dressmaker 193 

Painter 1 

Candymaker.    .  " 1 

Gardener.  .  .' 3 

Printer 7 

Car  conductor 2 

Policeman 8 

Factory  worker 8 

Barber 1 


44  INTERESTS  IN   RELATION  TO   INTELLIGENCE 

Skilled  Trades                                                                      No.  of  Casee 

Shipbuilder 1 

Foreman 2 

Plumber 1 

Embroiderer 4 

Bricklayer.  . 1 

Milliner 13 

Waiter 3 

Butcher 5 

Teamster 6 

Blacksmith 3 

Fireman 11 

Carpenter 18 

Housekeeper 3 

Welder 1 

Soldier 2 

Sailor 3 

Camera  man 1 

Watchmaker 1 

Jeweler 1 

Ball  player 1 

Forester 6 

Farmer 4 

Total 315 

Mechanics                                                                            No.  of  Cases 

Chauffeur 27 

Electrician 49 

Auto  mechanic 92 

Truck-driver 1 

Engineer 41 

Mechanic 23 

Total 232 

Office  Work                                                                      No.  of  CasoB 

Telephone  operator 19 

Draftsman 5 

Of&ce  work 21 

Telegrapher 5 

Typist 26 

Stenographer 67 

Secretary ' 20 

Book-keeper 41 

Total 204 

Professions                                                                          No.  of  Cases 

Artist 68 

Poet 1 

Nurse 21 

Chemist 2 

Detective 2 

Scientific  explorer 1 


INTERESTS  IK  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE  45 

Professions                                                                           No.  of  Cases 

Druggist ■ 2 

Judge 3 

Missionary 8 

Doctor 40 

Author 10 

Librarian 7 

Ship 's  officer 1 

Radio  operator.  .  . 1 

Architect C 

Wireless  expert , 2 

Lawyer 27 

Dentist 1  _ 

Reporter 2 

Banker 8 

Teacher 52 

Musician 26 

Civil  engineer 9 

Total 300 

It  was  found  that  122  children  had  marked  ** actor"  as  first 
occupational  preference.  As  this  was  the  first  word  on  the  list 
it  was  suspected  that  the  directions  had  been  misunderstood  or 
that  thes€  children  had  followed  the  path  of  least  resistance  in 
marking.  This  would  constitute  one  factor  of  unreliability  in 
the  present  method.  This  group  had  a  range  from  I.  Q.  58  to 
130.  The  median  I.  Q.  was  96.9,  the  25  percentile  I.  Q.  87,  and 
the  75  i)ercentile  I.  Q.  109,  and  the  curve  shows  a  marked  irregu- 
larity. Whatever  influenced  the  choice  was  not,  therefore,  neces- 
sarily inferior  mentality. 

Twenty  children  chose  common  labor,  such  as  errand  boy, 
elevator  man  and  longshoreman.  These  ranged  from  I.  Q.  70 
to  120.  There  were  29  prospective  business  men  ranging  from 
I.  Q.  60  to  130,  choosing  "real  estate,"  '* clerk,"  "broker"  and 
"salesman."  Seventeen  girls  ranging  from  I.  Q.  70  to  120  gave 
"care  of  home"  as  first  choices.  The  number  of  these  groups 
is  too  small  for  statistical  treatment. 

Charts  6  and  7  show  the  distributions  according  to  intelli- 
gence quotient  of  the  children  expressing  interest  in  skilled 
trades,  in  mechanics,  and  in  clerical  work  compared  to  similar 
groups  taken  from  the  army  records.  (23) 

The  probable  errors  of  the  medians  of  these  distributions 
5    Q 

(4VN)  are  as  follows: 


46 


INTERESTS   IN    RELATION    TO   INTELLIGENCE 


Skilledlrades 
Rrm^  Rating 


nq.y 


7kit. 


CHAKT.  fo. 


loh-j 


|.Q.     —63  fcV-T*7^-7t  <jiT-cj^  i0o-/cxf  t/o-iiq  izo—^ 
%.    SS      II+-5      2-^''       2<?-7     lis      70        ♦••;; 


SKilled   Iraciee 
Children's 


9Z-5 


erences. 


/f^-;^ 


|.Q.    to-(>^  70-  ^  U-fCj  Cfo-C^q  tOo-UXf  IIO-tK^  I30-H^  /30-AJ^ 

7o     2q->    «53     *.V*^    3o.q+   /9.Z     7.2     IS        -y 

rlechanics 

firmy 

Rahng 


?0.3 


/Oi^ 


I.Q.    -<oi  6tf- 73 74 -  sc>  Vy-  9^  /oo -lof  MO -ti<f  no  - 
**/*.     2CJ      <^-3      2.^*3      3o-^    ZZV-    ^'-y       3 


Mech 


anics 


Children  s 
Prc^^erences 


7/<? 


/0»'/ 


5M. 


|.Q.  5o-5<j  to -6<^7o-7^  io-  %<f  cfo-^cjioo'/c^  ao-fi<f  uo'iufiso-n<^ 

*%'        (j        l^b      /3T       25o       /T.O*    Z7'(?     73        '7         '^ 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 


47 


Clerical  VYorK 
Rrmvj    Ral'in6 


lU'T 


CHML7. 


Mft 


1 ^ 


y».  Oy       /.<^      ^T-s      22?       2  f     Ztt     /y-fc 


Clerical  Work 
Children's 


??sS 


iry 


/oy-A 


1 


Professions 
Rrmy  RatinJ 


/Z3' 


/<54 


/d4 


tv  few  •  y3.  y*-  rfe  fy-^f  i«»./«^  *o-y/9  /a*  — 


Rofcssions. 

Children  s 
frc-fierences 


jli 


^f 


/ft?  ■  / 


?,  -4       7d     '^'    ^-^    ^7*   ''^     '•    ^*       ••*♦ 


48 


INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 


Skilled  trades 8.9 

Mechanics. 11.1 

Clerical  work 9.4 

Professions 9.7 


P.  E. 


of  median 
.63 
.78 
.82 
.67 


In  order  to  obtain  data  for  the  distribution  from  the  army 
ratings,  the  percentile  distributions  of  the  groups  composing, 
respectively,  skilled  trades,  mechanics,  and  clerical  workers  were 
taken  from  Table  378,  '* Intelligence  and  Occupation"  (p.  828), 
and  summarized.  The  letter  ratings  of  Alpha  and  Beta  com- 
bined were  converted  into  intelligence  quotients  according  to  the 
accepted  army  standard  (p.  423).  The  groups  were  composed 
as  follows: 


Skilled  Trades 

Occupation        I.  Q.  63 

General   blacksmith...  5.4 

General    carpenter....  3.3 

Painter 4.8 

Plumber 2.6 

Locomotive  fireman...  3.0 

Teamster 9.4 

Butcher 3.1 

Barber 6.6 

Horseshoer 7.1 

Gen.  pipe  fitter 2.8 

Bricklayer 9.7 

Tailor 8.4 

Mechanics 

Gen.   machinist 4.1 

Gen.  electrician 1.6 

Auto  chauffeur 2.3 

Gen.  auto  repairman..  1.9 
Stationary  gas  engine- 
man 2.7 

Tel.    and     telegraphic 

lineman 2.9 

Auto  engine  mechanic.  1.2 

Gen.  boilermaker 5.9 

Gen.  mechanic 4.3 

Railroad      shop      me- 
chanic   5.4 

Tool  room   expert .... 

Locomotive   engineman  1.8 

Marine  engineman 4.3 


64-73 

74-86 

87-99 

100-109 

110-119 

120  or  < 

13.9 

20.5 

31.3 

18.8 

8.2 

1.7 

10.5 

24.1 

31.9 

20.7 

7.6 

1.9 

12.2 

22.5 

33. 

18.2 

7.7 

1.5 

9.6 

20.4 

31.9 

23.7 

9.2 

2.6 

9.0 

21.5 

36.4 

31.1 

7.1 

1.9 

19.7 

24.9 

27.9 

12.5 

4.3 

1.3 

11.3 

22.8 

31.8 

21.6 

8.3 

1.1 

18.8 

26.5 

26.3 

14.9 

6.1 

.8 

17.5 

25.0 

29.7 

15.1 

5.2 

.5 

7.8 

23.4 

29.8 

26.1 

7.8 

2.3 

16.4 

21.3 

25.6 

15.9 

8.2 

2.9 

25.5 

24.7 

20.9 

14.2 

4.6 

1.7 

10.8 

22.7 

29.2 

21.2 

9.3 

3.0 

3.8 

10.4 

28.4 

27.7 

18.2 

9.8 

8.5 

21.0 

31.3 

22.5 

10.2 

4.1 

6.7 

21.2 

31.7 

25.1 

10.6 

2.8 

10.2 

30.7 

30.0 

15.7 

8.5 

2.0 

8.0 

21.7 

33.9 

20.8 

8.9 

3.8 

2.9 

20.7 

35.1 

24.7 

11.5 

4.0 

14.4 

29.4 

29.4 

11.8 

7.2 

2.0 

11.6 

16.7 

28.3 

24.6 

14.5 

16.2 

27.1 

21.6 

18.9 

8.1 

2.7 

6.8 

20.5 

34.1 

29.5 

6.8 

2.3 

12.7 

21.8 

32.7 

27.3 

3.6 

8.5 

25.6 

29.8 

21.3 

8.5 

2.1 

INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE  49 

Clerical  Work 

Telegrapher 1.2  10.0  29.1  32.2  20.3  7.3 

Bookkeeper 2  .9  4.4  17.9  29.9  28.6  18.1 

Gen.  clerk 3  .9  5.2  19.7  33.6  25.0  15.3 

Stenographer  &  typist.  1.7  8.7  27.1  34.3  28.1 

Telephone     operator..  1.8  7.3  47.3  23.6  20. 

Filing  clerk 3.6  23.6  32.7  23.6  16.4 

Mechanical  draftsman.  1.7  8.6  13.8  17.2  34.5  24.1 

Professions 

Engineer  officer .4  3.6  16.3  79.6     , 

Medical  officer .88        3.1  18.6  36.8  40'.7 

Dental  officer 19.0  26.6  36.7  17.7 

Army  chaplain 1.5  8.4  24 . 5  65 . 5 

Army  nurse .2           3.1         17.7  34.4  26.9  17.6 

Civil  engineer 1.9           1.9           9.4  18.9  34.0  34.0 

Mechanical   engineer..  8.9          4.4        22.2  17.8  24.4  22.2 

Accountant .5          5.5  26.2  39.1  28.7 

In  February,  1921,  vocational  interests  were  made  the  subject 
of  interview  in  Public  School  No.  11,  New  York  City,  by  Dr. 
Euth  Clark  of  the  Vocational  Guidance  and  Employment  Ser- 
vice for  Juniors. (28)  The  interval  since  the  giving  of  the  group 
questionnaire  was  nearly  a  year  so  that  Dr.  Clark  ^s  results  may 
be  used  as  a  legitimate  check  on  the  first.  They  furnish  ade- 
quate corroboration.  Grades  5  to  8  were  covered  including  the 
opportunity  classes,  and  the  intelligence  quotients  are  the  same 
as  those  used  as  a  basis  for  the  present  study.  The  findings  of 
this  investigation  are  shown  in  the  following  table : 

Vocations  No.        Range  of  I.  Q.     Av.  I.  Q. 

Skilled  mechanics 143  53-136  90.4 

Professions 77  46-146  100.8 

Office  work 35  65-136  92.4 

Business 20  64-142  98.2 

Unskilled  labor 14  64-110  81 .1 

Artistic  work 12  67-107  85.5 

Semi-professional 9  71-120  95.1 

Physical  prowess 6  72-109                86.6 

Machine  operator 4  64-92                  77.7 

For  the  group  of  children  planning  for  professional  careers, 
we  have  no  parallel  group  of  adults  either  in  the  army  ratings 
or  in  the  reports  of  psychological  experimentation.  Although 
the  curve  has  been  drawn  showing  the  distribution  of  such  pro- 
fessionals as  were  functioning  in  their  own  occupation  in  the 
army,  it  is  recognized  that  they  are  not  a  representative  group. 


50  INTERESTS   IN   RELATION   TO   INTELLIGENCE 

Comparison  of  the  lists  will  show  that  the  children's  choices 
covered  24  professions,  while  only  8  were  represented  in  regular 
work  of  the  army.  It  is  significant,  however,  that  although  the 
median  of  the  army  professional  group  is  well  within  the  classi- 
fication of  superior  adult,  the  lower  25  per  cent  extends  from 
average  to  border-line  and  below.    Our  professional  standards 

.  have  evidently  been  low  when  individuals  of  inferior  types  have 
found  it  possible  to  obtain  certification.     And,  although  the 

'  minimum  requirements  in  terms  of  general  intelligence  have  not 
been  determined  for  the  professions  listed  in  the  children's 
choices,  it  is  a  safe  assumption  that  nearly  50  per  cent  must  fail 
of  their  ambition,  since  a  college  degree  or  at  least  a  high  school 
diploma  is  a  prerequisite  for  training.  If  effort  could  be  made 
to  discover  what  particular  element  in  the  profession  is  the 

V  determining  factor  of  their  choices,  this  element  might  be  found 
in  an  occupation  within  the  scope  of  their  mental  capacities.  Job 
analysis  is  still  in  its  infancy,  but  surely  its  proper  sphere 

'  begins  where  children's  native  drives  for  future  life  begin  to  be 
directed  into  definite  grooves. 

The  distribution  of  clerical  workers  in  the  army  shows  a 
median  I.  Q.  of  106+  in  contrast  to  the  median  I.  Q.  of  97+  found 
among  the  children  of  similar  group.  It  may  be  that  individuals 
were  impressed  for  the  clerical  work  of  the  army,  who  in  peace 
"  time  were  occupied  with  professional  work  for  which  there  was 
no  call  in  the  army.  Of  the  children  expressing  interest  in 
clerical  work,  the  upper  25  per  cent  would  probably  rise  to 
higher  positions  using  office  work  as  a  stepping  stone. 

The  groups  of  mechanics  and  of  skilled  trades  agree  in  essen- 
tial points  when  army  ratings  and  children's  choices  are  com- 
pared. If  the  army  ratings  of  these  groups  may  be  taken  as 
representing  life  opportunity  and  the  children's  preferences  as 
life  aspirations,  we  may  infer  that  there  is  no  real  discrepancy 
between  the  two,  but  that  there  is  a  place  for  each  one  accord- 
ing to  his  capacity  to  fill  it.  It  is  also  obvious  that  the  lower  50 
per  cent  of  these  groups  comprising  nearly  25  per  cent  of  the 
entire  group  included  in  this  investigation  would  have  a  better 
preparation  for  adult  life  if  their  mental  limitations  were  taken 
into  account  in  the  elementary  school  and  special  courses  were 

•  provided  which  gave  them  opportunity  for  capitalizing  their 


INTERESTS   IN   RELATION    TO   INTELLIGENCE  51 

mechanical  abilities.  Cultural  subjects  need  not,  thereby,  be 
neglected,  but  might  be  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  the  group. 

The  work  involved  in  mechanics  and  skilled  trades  includes 
occupations  of  every  degree  of  complexity.  The  range  of  I.  Q.  's 
in  these  distributions  and  the  normality  of  the  curves  is,  there- 
fore, in  keeping  with  life  opportunities  in  these  fields.  In  in- 
dustry and  in  schools  for  vocational  training  we  sometimes  meet 
with  an  objection  against  the  employment  of  inferior  mentalities 
and  high  grade  defectives,  on  the  plea  that  they  have  not  the 
capacity  for  normal  advancement.  The  assumption  here  is,  that 
when  these  individuals  reach  the  plateau  of  their  learning 
curves,  they  naturally  become  discontented.  Experience  with 
mental  defectives  does  not  bear  out  this  assumption.  There  are 
stable  and  unstable  temperaments  in  every  degree  of  general 
intelligence.  The  latter,  when  combined  with  mental  defects  are 
subjects  for  institutional  care.  The  former  are  well  content  in 
occupations  which  to  higher  mentalities  are  blind  alley  jobs. 
They  labor  happily  and  efficiently  in  routine  work  in  which  the 
constant  repetition  required  is  galling  to  more  active  minds. 
This  confusion  of  temperamental  with  intellectual  qualification 
is  the  cause  of  much  unwisdom  in  vocational  training  and  in 
industrial  organization.  Objective  tests  for  character  traits  are 
now  of  special  interest  in  psychological  experimentation  and 
will  presumably  meet  the  need  for  more  intensive  character 
study  in  schools  and  in  industries. 

The  experiment  conducted  by  Elizabeth  B.  Bigelow(25)  at 
New  Haven,  Connecticut,  offers  proof  of  the  stability  of  sub- 
normal girls  in  industry.  The  success  of  the  parole  system  as 
worked  out  by  Dr.  Bernstein (26)  is  another  instance  of  extra- 
institutional  control.  Dr.  Gesell(27)  suggests  adjustment  by 
means  of  more  adequate  legislation  for  parole  systems. 

Industrial  stability  in  relation  to  intelligence,  on  the  basis  of 
school  retardation,  used  as  the  only  available  measure,  has  been 
studied  by  W.  D.  Scott  and  M.  H.  S.  Hayes.  (31,  p.  70  ff.)  They 
considered  the  expressed  desires  for  change  of  work  of  470  em- 
ployees divided  among  six  departments  of  a  manufacturing 
company. 

When  the  results  for  the  six  departments  are  plotted  in  one 
curve,  a  steady  rise  in  dissatisfaction  as  retardation  grows  less 


52  INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 

is  shown.  When  each  department  is  studied  separately  the  re- 
sults are  in  marked  agreement  with  the  degree  of  intelligence 
required  by  the  different  types  of  work  of  the  departments.  For 
instance  (31,  p.  76):  **In  both  the  foundry  and  the  gear  and 
lathe  departments,  the  men  who  are  the  most  retarded  are  the 
most  satisfied  with  their  work;  the  men  who  are  least  retarded 
are  almost  equally  content.  The  greatest  instability  is  found 
among  those  who  occupy  a  middle  ground  in  the  matter  of  re- 
tardation. This  curious  fact  may  be  understood  when  it  is 
realized  that  in  these  two  departments  there  are  both  very  low- 
grade  and  very  high-grade  jobs.'' 

Workingmen  of  high  intelligence  are  as  likely  to  be  discon- 
tented as  those  of  low  intelligence  in  situations  which  do  not 
offer  scope  for  the  exercise  of  their  capacities. 

Conclusions 

1.  Interests  are  not  conditioned  by  intelligence  except  in  so 
far  as  intelligence  limits  comprehension  in  the  fields  of  interest. 

2.  Of  the  children  considered  in  this  investigation,  those 
planning  to  go  to  high  school  have  a  median  I.  Q.  of  101.7 — . 
This  indicates  that  50  per  cent  of  probable  high  school  entrants 
have  not  the  necessary  intelligence  to  cope  with  the  academic 
requirements  for  graduation. 

3.  Of  the  children  planning  for  part  time  secondary  educa- 
tion 25  per  cent  have  sufficient  intelligence  to  become  high  school 
graduates.  These  cases  should  be  studied  with  a  view  to  giving 
opportunity  to  complete  the  high  school  course  without  economic 
handicaps. 

4.  Of  the  children  planning  to  go  to  work  without  further 
school  training  approximately  15  per  cent  have  the  mental 
ability  to  become  high  school  graduates. 

The  range  and  variability  are  approximately  the  same  for 
the  three  groups  showing  the  need  of  differentiation  according 
to  rate  of  learning  in  class  work. 

5.  The  groups  of  boys  planning  to  go  to  work  without  further 
school  plans  or  planning  for  part  time  secondary  education, 
show  a  somewhat  greater  variability  than  the  corresponding 
groups  of  girls;  whereas  the  group  of  girls  planning  to  go  to 
high  school  is  more  variable  than  the  corresponding  group  of 
boys. 


\ 


INTERESTS   IN   REIJ^TION    TO   INTELLIGENCE  53 

6.  The  percentage  of  boys  going  to  work  or  planning  for  part 
time  secondary  education  is  73  per  cent  of  the  total  number  in 
contrast  to  60  per  cent  of  the  corresponding  group  of  girls. 

7.  There  is  a  high  degree  of  correspondence  between  success 
in  the  Pintner  Non-Language  Scale  and  interest  in  occupations 
involving  manual  ability. 

8.  Approximately  equal  numbers  of  children  express  interest 
in  skilled  trades,  mechanics,  clerical,  and  professional  work. 
Skilled  trades  and  mechanics  show  similar  curves  and  almost 
equal  central  tendencies.  Prospective  clerical  workers  include 
some  of  the  highest  I.  Q.  's,  and  their  central  tendency  is  higher 
than  that  of  mechanics  or  skilled  trades.  Prospective  profes- 
sional workers  show  a  slight  advance  in  central  tendency,  but 
include  children  of  all  degrees  from  border-line  to  superior 
adult.  The  overlapping  of  the  four  curves  indicates  the  need 
for  work  along  the  lines  of  vocational  orientation  and  guidance 
beginning  in  the  intermediate  grades'  of  the  elementary  school. 

9.  Over  half  of  the  children  have  not  learned  to  associate  the 
idea  of  their  favorite  occupations  with  the  idea  of  life  work, 
while  approximately  70  per  cent  have  definite  ideas  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  occupation  by  which  thej^  expect  to  make  a  living. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Principles  of  Psychology,  James. 

2.  Psyehology,  A  Study  of  the  Mental  Life,  E.  S.  Woodworth.     Henry  Holt  Oo., 

New  York. 

3.  Original  Nature  of  Man,  Chap.  9,  E.  L.  Thorndike. 

4.  Walseman,  H. :    Das  Interesse,  sein  Wesen  und  seine  Bedeutung  2.    Auflage  1907. 

5.  What  can   the   Psychology  of   Interests,   Motives  and   Character   contribute  to 

Vocational  Guidance?     Joseph  K.  Folsom.     The  Jr.  of  Applied  Psyeh.  Sept. 
1917. 

6.  Permanence  of  Interests  and  their  Relation  to  Abilities,  E.  L.  Thorndike.     Pop. 

Sci.  Mo.  1912,  81,  449-456. 

7.  Early  Interests:     Their  Permanence  and  Relation  to  Abilities,  E.  L.  Thorndike. 

School  and  Society,  Feb.  10,  1917. 

8.  The  Causes  of  Elimination  of  Students  in  Public  Secondary  Schools  of  New 

York  City,  J.  Van  Denburg,  Ph.D.,  1911.     T.  C.  Publication. 

9.  Preliminary  Report  on  the  State-Wide  Mental  Survey  of  High  School  Seniors 

of  Indiana,  William  F.  Book,  1920. 

10.  A  Study  of  Certain  Tests  and  their  Significance  in  the  Administration  of  the 

High  School  Curriculum,  Elizabeth  Sullivan,  Master's  Thesis,  Stanford  Uni- 
versity.   1918. 

11.  A  Scale  for  Measuring  Mental  Ability  in  Vocations  and  some  of  its  Applications, 

Frank  Elmer  Barr,  Stanford  University,  1918. 

12.  Group  Differences  in  the  Interests-  of  Children,  Gertrude  Mary  Kuper.     Jr.  of 

Phil.  1912.  9,  376. 


54  INTERESTS  IN  RELATION  TO  INTELLIGENCE 

13.  Festellimg  der  Berufs  ideale  und  Berufswunsehe  unserer  Volkschulkinder,  Von 

Dr.  Phil.  Albert  May  in  Mannheim  Praktische  Psychologic  1.  Jahrgaog 
1920,  9  Heft. 

14.  The  Constructive  Interests  of  Children,  E.  B.  Kent,  A.M.    Columbia  University,  <»     ^yv. 

1903.  "      ..-.. 

'15.  The  Mental  Status  of  Truants,  L.  E.  PouU,  M.A.     Ungraded,  October  1919. 

16.  Social  Psychology,  William  MaeDougall. 

17.  National   Intelligence   Tests.     Prepared   under   the   auspices    of    the    National 

Research  Council  by  M.  E.  Haggerty,  L.  M.  Terman,  E.  L.  Thorndike,  G.  M. 
Whipple,  and  P.  M.  Yerkes,  Chairman.  1920.  World  Book  Company, 
Yonkers-on-Hudson,  New  York. 

18.  A   Non-Language  Group   Intelligence    Test.     By   Rudolf   Pintner,   Ohio   State 

University.     Jr.  of  Applied  Psych.,  Sept.  1919. 

19.  Key  for  Completion- Test  Language  Scales.    By  M.  R.  Trabue,  Teachers  College 

Publication,  New  York  City,  1919. 

20.  Age  and  Grade  Norms  for  the  National  Intelligence   Tests  Scales  A   and   B, 

Lewis  M.  Terman  and  Ethel  Whitmere.  Leland  Stanford  University.  Journal 
of  Educational  Research,  February  1921. 

21.  Age  and  Grade  Census  of  Schools  and  Colleges,  G.  D.  Strayer.     Bull.  No.  451. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 
^.  The  Intelligence  of  School  Children,  Lewis  M.  Terman.     Houghton  Mifflin  Com- 
pany, 1919. 

23.  Memoirs  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  Vol.  XV.     Psychological  Ex- 

amining in  the  United  States  Army.     Edited  by  Robert  M.  Yerkes. 

24.  Bulletin  of  the  New  York  Society  for  Experimental  Education,  October  1920. 

25.  Experiment  to  determine  the  possibilities  of  subnormal  girls  in  factory  work, 

Eizabeth  B.  Bigelow.     Mental  Hygiene,  April   1921. 

26.  Colony  and  Extra-Institutional  Care  for  the  Feebleminded,  Charles  Bernstein. 

Mental  Hygiene,  Jan.  1920. 

27.  Vocational  Probation  for  Subnormal  Youth,  Arnold  Gesell,  Ph.D.,  M.D.     Mental 

Hygiene,  April  1921. 

28.  Vocational  Interests:   Unpublished   data  of  the  Vocational  Guidance   and  Em- 

ployment Service  for  Juniors.     By  Ruth  S.  Clark,  Ph.D.     New  York  City. 

29.  The  Use  of  Intelligence  Tests  in  Educational  Guidance  of  High  School  Pupils, 

Wm.  M.  Proctor.    School  and  Society,  Oct.  19  and  Oct.  26,  1919. 

30.  A  Statistical  Study  of  102   Truants,  Willis  W.   Clark,   M.A.     Journal   of  De- 

linquency, Sept.  1918. 

31.  Science  and  Common  Sense  in  Working  with  Men,  W.  D.  Scott  and  M.  H.  S. 

Hayes.    New  York.    The  Ronald  Press  Co.    1921. 

32.  The  Stanford  Revision  and  Extension  of  the  Binet-Simon  Scale  for  measuring 

Intelligence,  Lewis  M.  Terman  and  others.  Warwick  and  York,  Baltimore. 
1917. 

33.  Scientific  Personnel  Work  in  the  Army,  E.  L.  Thorndike.     Science.     1919 — 49. 

34.  Educational  Psychology,  Vol.  3.     E.  L.  Thorndike. 

Note:     Reprints  on  sale  in  the  oflSce  of  the   Archives  of  Psychology,  Columbia 
University,  New  York  City. 


VITA. 

The  writer  was  born  November  21,  1876,  in  Port  Wash- 
ington, Wisconsin.  She  attended  elementziry  and  secondary 
schools  in  Chicago  receiving  the  graduate  diploma  of  St.  Bene- 
dict's Academy  in  1893:  American  Conservatory  of  Music, 
Chicago,  Teacher's  Certificate  for  Violin  and  Theory  of  Music 
in  1903;  Washington  State  Normal  School  Ellensburg  diploma 
in  1916;  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  B.S.  and 
Diploma  of  Supervisor  of  Special  Classes  in  1917;  M.A.  and: 
Diploma  of  Psychologist  in  1919. 

Her  professional  experience  is  as  follows:  Assistant  In- 
structor Department  of  Psychology,  Washington  State  Normal 
School  1917;  Psychological  Examiner  in  the  Department  of 
Unguarded  Classes,  New  York  City  1917-1920;  Psychologisfc 
in  charge,  Children's  Hospital,  Randall's  Island,  New  York  City 
Civil  Service,  Department  of  Welfare  1920. 


^^S  BOOK  IS  Wo?^^^^ 

T-H'S  BOOK  ^f®^^°   '^OR   FA^L^,.^^       CENTS 
^OVERDOE^  *'°°    ON     THE    SeIenth""""" 


3   ^93?] 


^^er  19 


27NovS9FW 
REC'D  LD 

NOV  15  1959 


^I^2l-50,«-8,,32 


